SECTION III – CORRELATES OF CRIME
Families and Crime
Module 12 focuses on the family and its role in adolescent behavior. Families play a central part in shaping social behavior, values, and emotional growth. This module examines how family structures, parenting styles, and household environments influence the development of antisocial and criminal behavior. Drawing on insights from criminology, sociology, and psychology, we examine the pathways through which early family experiences can either increase or decrease the risk of delinquency and subsequent criminal activity.
You will examine how family dynamics, including parental responsiveness, supervision, discipline, and socioeconomic stress, impact children at various stages of their lives. We also examine the intergenerational transmission of antisocial behavior and how patterns of conflict, neglect, or coercion can be passed from one generation to the next. Lastly, we analyze how external factors, including neighborhood environment and poverty, interact with family processes to influence risk and resilience.
This module encourages you to critically analyze how social institutions such as the family help prevent crime and how public policies and community programs can improve family functioning and lower the chances of delinquency.
Learning Objectives
After completing this module, you should be able to:
- identify behavioral and environmental factors that increase the risk of antisocial or delinquent behavior in children and adolescents.
- explain how family structure, parenting style, and household dynamics impact antisocial behavior in children, adolescents, and adults.
- describe the relationship between parental supervision, discipline, and the development of self-control.
- define and distinguish the two key dimensions of parenting—responsiveness and demandingness—and evaluate how they relate to delinquency outcomes.
- assess how socioeconomic stressors, such as poverty and neighborhood disadvantage, affect family functioning and behavioral development.
- explain how corporal punishment and coercive family processes contribute to maladaptive or aggressive behavior.
- analyze intergenerational transmission of criminal behavior using social learning and life-course theoretical perspectives.
- compare insights from contemporary research, including national surveys and multimedia sources, on parenting, brain development, and resilience.
- evaluate public policy approaches that strengthen family systems, promote positive parenting, and reduce the risk of delinquency across generations.
Summary
This module examines how family dynamics influence antisocial and criminal behavior throughout life. Through assigned readings, reviews, and multimedia activities, you explored the links among parenting styles, family structure, socioeconomic factors, and behavioral outcomes.
In Chapter 9: Families and Crime, Leslie Gordon Simons highlights how family processes, supervision, and discipline directly shape the development of antisocial behavior. The reading introduces key theories—such as self-control theory and life-course theory—that explain why family experiences during childhood and adolescence have lasting effects on behavior.
The video Parents Should Not Be Spanking Their Kids by Nicole Harris supports this discussion by examining corporal punishment as a form of discipline. It emphasizes research showing that physical punishment can increase aggression and antisocial behavior, contrasting sharply with the benefits of positive reinforcement and clear communication.
The Statistics Don’t Lie: Fathers Matter emphasizes the protective role of involved fathers, showing how paternal engagement promotes emotional stability and lowers delinquency risk. Complementing this, The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS) by the CDC provides data on how exposure to family violence can continue cycles of aggression and deviance.
Two multimedia features, Inside the Teenage Brain (PBS Frontline) and The Making of a Juvenile Delinquent (TEDx Talk by Byron Williams), demonstrate how developmental, neurological, and social factors intersect with family experiences. These materials connect theory with real-world examples of supervision, mentorship, and resilience.
The Successful Parenting Podcast and NPR’s A Parenting Paradox: How Kids Manage to Be ‘All Joy and No Fun’ offer modern insights on family stress, emotional bonds, and discipline. They encourage reflection on how parents navigate competing demands while maintaining balance and control in a digital age.
Finally, the NIJ report, Intergenerational Transmission of Criminal Behavior, broadens the discussion by exploring how patterns of offending and victimization continue across generations. When combined with Murray and Farrington’s (2010) research on risk factors for conduct disorder and delinquency, these sources demonstrate how criminological theory and empirical evidence work together to explain and prevent family-linked crime.
Together, these readings, videos, and discussions illustrate that the family is both a source of risk and resilience. Parenting styles, supervision, communication, and socioeconomic stability all interact to influence behavior across generations. Understanding these relationships provides a foundation for effective intervention, prevention, and public policy aimed at reducing delinquency and promoting healthy family functioning.
| Theory / Perspective | Key Scholars | Assigned Resources | Policy Connections |
| Family and Antisocial Behavior (Life-Course and Self-Control Perspectives) | Leslie Gordon Simons; Travis Hirschi; Robert Sampson & John Laub | Chapter 9: Families and Crime (University of Georgia) | Supports family-centered prevention and intervention programs such as early childhood family support and parental training initiatives. |
| Parenting and Discipline (Social Learning & Developmental Psychology) | Albert Bandura; Diana Baumrind; Gerald Patterson | Parents Should Not Be Spanking Their Kids (Parents, 2022) | Encourages policies promoting positive parenting and alternatives to corporal punishment through public health and education campaigns. |
| Fatherhood and Protective Factors (Social Control Theory) | Michael Gottfredson & Travis Hirschi; National Fatherhood Initiative | The Statistics Don’t Lie: Fathers Matter (National Fatherhood Initiative®, 2023) | Advocates for community-based fatherhood engagement initiatives and support programs emphasizing parental involvement in child development. |
| Family Violence and Risk (Cycle of Violence Theory) | Cathy Widom; Murray Straus; CDC Researchers | National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (CDC, 2023) | Informs family violence prevention, trauma-informed services, and intervention strategies to reduce risk of intergenerational aggression. |
| Adolescence and Brain Development (Biosocial & Developmental Perspectives) | Adrian Raine; Laurence Steinberg | Inside the Teenage Brain (PBS Frontline, 2021) | Supports educational and community policies promoting structured youth engagement, after-school programming, and parental guidance. |
| Resilience and Mentorship (Turning Point & Life-Course Theories) | Sampson & Laub; Byron Williams | The Making of a Juvenile Delinquent (TEDx Talk, 2023) | Highlights restorative and mentorship-based interventions that promote reintegration and positive identity transformation. |
| Modern Parenting Perspectives (Sociological and Psychological Approaches) | Shankar Vedantam (NPR); Family Systems Theorists | Successful Parenting Podcast & NPR’s A Parenting Paradox (2024) | Encourages mental health support for parents, work-family balance initiatives, and public awareness of modern family stressors. |
| Comparative Longitudinal Research (Developmental Criminology) | David P. Farrington; Joseph Murray | Murray & Farrington (2010) – Risk Factors for Conduct Disorder and Delinquency | Informs global policy discussions on family structure, access to education, and long-term investment in behavioral health. |
Key Takeaways
Click on the > to expand the related statement.
Key Terms/Concepts
Click on the following key term/concept to view the definition:
Attachment Theory
At-Risk
Authoritarian Parents
Authoritative
Biosocial Perspective
Child Maltreatment
Coercion model of antisocial behavior
Coercive Family Process
Common Couple Violence
Corporal Punishment
Cycle of Violence
Demandingness
Family Stress Model
Family Structure
Intergenerational Transmission
Intimate Partner Violence
Life-Course Theory
Neglectful/Rejecting Parents
Parental Attachment
Parental Responsiveness and Demandingness Matrix
Parental Supervision and Monitoring
Permissive Parents
Resilience
Responsiveness
Self Control Theory
Social Deviance
Social Learning Theory
Spouse Abuse or Battering
Modern Application
Disconnected: Youth, New Media, and the Ethics Gap by Carrie James
A book that explores the complex relationship between young people, digital media, and ethical decision-making. Published in 2014, James, a researcher at Harvard University’s Project Zero, delves into how digital technologies shape the moral and ethical landscapes of young users.
The book is based on extensive research with teenagers, ages 12 to 19, from various socioeconomic backgrounds in the United States. Through interviews, surveys, and observations, James examines how young people handle the ethical challenges of digital media platforms, including social networking sites, online gaming, and digital communication tools.
James examines the ethical issues that come up in online settings, such as cyberbullying, privacy worries, digital plagiarism, and online identity building. She looks at how young people see and deal with these problems within their peer groups and wider social environments.
The concept of the “ethics gap” refers to the disparity between young people’s moral values and their online behavior. James states that although many teenagers have a clear sense of right and wrong offline, they often struggle to apply these ethical standards consistently online due to the unique features and norms of digital environments.
The book highlights the importance of digital literacy and citizenship education in helping young people navigate the ethical challenges of the digital age. James supports a comprehensive approach that extends beyond technical skills to promote critical thinking, empathy, and responsible decision-making online.
“Disconnected” also examines the roles of parents, educators, and policymakers in fostering ethical development among young people in digital spaces. James stresses the importance of adults having open conversations with youth about digital ethics, offering guidance on making ethical choices, and pushing for policies that ensure online safety and accountability.
Overall, “Disconnected” provides a nuanced look at the ethical challenges and opportunities that digital media present for today’s youth. It encourages readers to consider how technology influences moral reasoning and advocates for collective efforts to build a more ethical digital culture.
Read, Review, Watch and Listen
1. Read Chapter 9: Families and Crime by Leslie Gordon Simons, University of Georgia
- Print a copy or have access to this reading via a digital device for in class review and discussion.
- To support the student’s reading of the article, they can listen to a recorded version of the same. Note that listening to the article is not a substitute for a careful and directed reading of the document.
This chapter:
- explores the complex relationship between family processes and the development of criminal behavior, integrating insights from criminology, psychology, sociology, and family science to explain how family dynamics can influence antisocial behaviors in children, adolescents, and adults.
- emphasizes the role of parenting styles and discipline in shaping a child’s likelihood of engaging in delinquency or crime. Authoritative parenting is associated with positive outcomes, while neglectful or inconsistent discipline is linked to higher risks of antisocial behavior.
- discusses how socioeconomic factors, such as poverty and neighborhood conditions, impact family functioning and parenting effectiveness, highlighting that financial hardship often leads to inconsistent discipline, less supervision, and increased stress, all of which can increase the risk of deviant behavior in children.
- presents evidence on the intergenerational transmission of antisocial behavior, suggesting that children exposed to harsh or abusive parenting are at higher risk of replicating such behaviors, contributing to cycles of violence and delinquency across generations.
- analyzes different theoretical models that explain the stability and change of antisocial behavior across life stages, including self-control theory and life course theory, which account for factors that can either perpetuate or mitigate criminal tendencies over time.
2. Review and Watch Parents Should Not Be Spanking Their Kids, and Here’s Why (Parents by Nicole Harris, November 2022).
a. For an overview of the related discussion and related literature, refer to pp. 70-71 of Chapter 9.
b. Corporal punishment refers to the use of physical force, such as spanking or hitting, to discipline or correct a child’s behavior.
c. Many child development experts, pediatric associations, and human rights organizations strongly advise against using corporal punishment. Research has shown that it can have negative effects on a child’s emotional and psychological well-being, leading to increased aggression, antisocial behavior, and mental health problems. It may also damage the parent-child relationship and erode trust between the child and their parents.
d. Instead, experts recommend positive discipline methods that focus on teaching and guiding children through age-appropriate consequences, setting clear boundaries, using effective communication, and providing positive reinforcement for good behavior. These methods are believed to be more effective in promoting long-term behavioral and emotional development while fostering a healthier parent-child relationship.
e. It is important for parents to understand the potential consequences of using corporal punishment and consider alternative discipline strategies that promote a supportive and nurturing environment for their children.
3. Review The Statistics Don’t Lie: Fathers Matter (National Fatherhood Initiative®, last accessed, July 2023).
a. For an overview of the related discussion and related literature, refer to pp. 71-72 of Chapter 9.
4. Review The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS) (CDC, last accessed, August 2023).
a. For an overview of the related discussion and related literature, refer to pp. 73-74 of Chapter 9.
5. Watch Inside the Teenage Brain (PBS Frontline, 2021)
a. Provides a neuroscientific perspective on decision-making and parental influence.
b. Explains why supervision and boundaries are crucial during adolescence.
6. Watch How motherhood changes the brain (BBC, February 2022).
a. There are many hidden forces at play that shape a new mother’s identity, biology and physical self. Melissa Hogenboom, BBC science journalist and author looks at the latest neuroscientific understanding of how the brain changes during pregnancy and motherhood, and the positive impact this can have on new mothers.
7. Watch The Making of a Juvenile Delinquent | Byron Williams | TEDxDanielHandHS (TEXx Talks, May 3, 2023) [also embedded below]
a. Throughout the program, think about possible links between parenting and delinquency.
b. Identify ways that Mr. Williams’ commitment to fatherhood and family guard against antisocial behavior.
8. Listen to a Successful Parenting podcast of your choice (last accessed, November 2024).
a. Sociologists, psychologists, and criminologists have produced a voluminous amount research examining the relationship between parental behavior and delinquency.
9. Listen to NPR’s ALL THINGS CONSIDERED, A Parenting Paradox: How Kids Manage To Be ‘All Joy And No Fun’ (January 2024).
a. Discusses how control, discipline, and emotional connection shape behavioral outcomes in adolescence.
To access the PPT file, click HERE. Note that files are updated regularly and as such might change in content and appearance.
Read, Review, Watch and Listen to all listed materials by the due date listed within the course LMS (i.e., Blackboard) site.
Contact the professor with any course-related questions
Click HERE to report any needed updates, e.g., broken links.
ACTIVITY – Family-Based Interventions: Breaking the Link Between Ineffective Parenting and Delinquency
Stop!!!
Students should review the course syllabus to determine the assignment of this activity.
This is a copy of the module’s activity that students find within Blackboard. For that reason, refer to the Activities page to submit your work for review.
Overview
The main policy implication of this focus is that prevention and rehabilitation efforts should begin as early as possible. Programs aimed at improving newborn health have gained popularity in recent years. Home visiting programs, where nurses visit mothers before and after childbirth, have shown significant promise. Family-based interventions, such as training programs to develop parental management skills, have demonstrated moderate success. For instance, the latest “second-generation” family-based intervention from Gerald Patterson and his colleagues, called the Family Check-Up (FCU), seeks to reduce childhood conduct problems by addressing disrupted or ineffective family management. The FCU is a brief, three-session program with an optional parent management training component. Since FCU is new, it is not yet known whether it effectively reduces delinquency or crime. The National Institute of Justice considers it “promising” based on evidence that it does decrease childhood problem behaviors and enhance positive parenting practices.
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to learn about family-based interventions and consider the importance childhood in the development of crime.
Instructions
- Red the section labeled Linking Parenting to Delinquency (pp. 68-70) within the Module 12 reading; that is, Chapter 9 Families And Crime by Leslie Gordon Simons, University of Georgia.
- Review the National Home Visiting Resource Center’s (NHVRC) overview, Who Is Being Served?
- Watch Home Visiting – A Closer Look | Pew ( also embedded below)
Answer the following questions:
-
- From a General Theory of Crime (GTC) perspective (Hirshi, 1969) explain how the NHVRC might improve the parent’s ability to develop self-control within their children. Be specific, refer to the related key terms/concepts, and incorporate elements of GTC as presented within the reading?
- According to the National Home Visiting Resource Center (2022), only 1.7 percent of the approximately 17.6 million pregnant caregivers and parenting families who could benefit from home visiting receive services. Identify reasons that some high-priority families do not gain access to services. Be as specific as possible. Meaning, incorporate key terms/concepts into your response.
- Identify and describe what you believe is one of the most important things/skills that the Home Visiting program might teach a participating parent. Be specific.
Key Terms/Concepts
Responsiveness – Involves the extent to which parents are approachable, warm, supportive, and attuned to the needs of the child.
Demandingness – The extent to which the parents exercise control over the child through, supervision, disciplinary efforts, and a willingness to consistently impose consequences for violations of expected behavior.
Permissive Parents – A type of parent who rank high on responsiveness but low on demandingness.
Authoritarian Parents – A type of parent who rank low on responsiveness and high on demandingness.
Neglectful/Rejecting Parents – A type of parent who rank low on both responsiveness and demandingness.
Authoritative Parents – A type of parent who rank high on both responsiveness and demandingness.
Discussion Questions
- Considering that children from stable, two-parent households tend to have lower involvement in crime, how might policymakers and community leaders create programs or initiatives that support and reinforce family stability?
- How do different parenting styles, specifically authoritative versus authoritarian, impact a child’s likelihood of engaging in criminal behavior?
- What interventions can be proposed to educate parents on effective parenting techniques that minimize the risk of delinquency?
- Discuss the implications of the finding that criminal behavior can be passed down through generations.
- Evaluate the role of sibling relationships in criminal behavior. Should intervention programs focus more on sibling dynamics and their influence on behavior, especially in families where one or more children are already involved in crime?
- How does socioeconomic status indirectly influence a child’s propensity for criminal behavior?
Supplemental Resources
- American Academy of Pediatrics AAP policy opposes corporal punishment, draws on recent evidence
- Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP): Juvenile Population Characteristics
- MST Services Poverty Impacts Children in a Multitude of Ways (Sep. 2018) [last accessed November 2023]
- Project Zero [Last accessed August 2024]
References
- Simons, L. G. (2009). Families and Crime. In J. M. Miller (Ed.), 21st Century Reference Series. 21st Century Criminology: A Reference Handbook (Vol. 1, pp. 67-75). SAGE Reference. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3201600019/GVRL?u=cod_lrc&sid=bookmark-GVRL&xid=38f46ed0
Suggests that healthy personality development in young children requires a warm, intimate, and continuous relationship with the primary caregiver. Children lacking such a relationship are more likely to engage in maladjusted behavior.
Attachment theory postulates three forms of attachment. Secure attachment is a healthy form of attachment and develops when a child is confident that the mother figure will be responsible and available when needed. Anxious-avoidant attachment develops when children feel rejection and develop a lack of confidence in the support and care of the parent. Anxious-resistant attachment develops from similar experiences and results in feelings of uncertainty, causing the child to feel anxious, to become fearful of his or her environment, and to cling to potential caregivers and partners. The latter two forms of attachment are non-secure and may lead to delinquent behavior.
Refers to young individuals who face a higher probability of experiencing negative life outcomes due to various factors, circumstances, or behaviors that put them in vulnerable situations. These young people may be at risk of engaging in behaviors that can lead to personal, social, and academic difficulties, potentially hindering their overall development and success.
Characterized by their strict and controlling parenting style. They tend to have high expectations for their children and enforce rules and discipline rigorously.
A style of parenting that is both high on responsiveness and demandingness.
The integration of biological and environmental factors explains how genetic predispositions interact with family context to influence antisocial behavior.
Refers to any form of abuse or neglect directed towards children under the age of 18 by a parent, caregiver, or another individual in a position of responsibility. Child maltreatment encompasses a range of harmful actions and omissions that can have severe and lasting consequences on a child's physical, emotional, and psychological well-being. It is a significant social issue that requires attention and intervention to protect vulnerable children.
A psychological theory that seeks to explain the development of aggressive and disruptive behaviors in individuals, particularly in the context of family interactions. It was first proposed by researchers Gerald Patterson and John Reid in the 1970s and has since been widely studied and supported by empirical evidence. According to the Coercion Model, the development of antisocial behavior is a result of a coercive cycle that occurs within family relationships.
The Coercion Model highlights the importance of early intervention and prevention strategies to disrupt the coercive cycle and promote positive parenting practices. Interventions often focus on teaching parents more effective and positive discipline techniques, improving communication skills, and fostering a supportive and nurturing family environment. By breaking the cycle of coercion, it is possible to reduce the risk of antisocial behavior development and improve the long-term outcomes for at-risk children and adolescents.
Patterson’s model explaining the mutual cycles of aggression between parents and children that reinforce antisocial behavior.
Occurs infrequently, does not escalate over time, and rarely results in physical injury or psychological trauma.
A disciplinary method that involves the use of physical force to inflict pain or discomfort as a means of correcting or controlling a person's behavior. It is often used as a form of punishment for children, students, or individuals who are perceived to have misbehaved or violated rules.
The process by which exposure to family violence in childhood raises the likelihood of committing or experiencing violence later in life.
Within the context of parenting, refers to the level of expectations, rules, and control that parents exert over their children's behavior and activities through supervision, disciplinary efforts, and a constant imposition of consequences for failing to meet expectations. It is one of the two main dimensions of parenting style, with the other being responsiveness.
A framework connecting economic hardship with family conflict, poor parenting practices, and child maladjustment.
The composition of a household, including parents, children, and extended family members, and how different arrangements (such as single-parent, blended, or two-parent households) impact child outcomes.
The transfer of behaviors, values, or crime patterns from one generation to the next through both learned experiences and environmental influences.
Also known as domestic violence and intimate terrorism, is a pattern of abusive behavior that occurs within a romantic or intimate relationship. It involves the use of physical, emotional, psychological, sexual, or economic tactics to control and dominate one's partner. IPV can occur in both heterosexual and same-sex relationships and affects individuals of all ages, genders, and socioeconomic backgrounds.
Sampson and Laub’s perspective highlights how early life experiences and later social bonds (such as family, work, and marriage) influence the course of criminal behavior.
Characterized by a lack of emotional involvement, attention, and support for their children. This parenting style is associated with a failure to meet the child's physical and emotional needs.
The emotional bond between parent and child that affects trust, empathy, and adherence to social norms.
The conceptual framework that defines the four parenting styles: authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, and neglectful.
The extent to which parents monitor and influence their child’s activities, peers, and behavior.
Also known as indulgent parents, exhibit a lenient and non-authoritarian parenting style. They are characterized by their high levels of warmth, responsiveness, and support but their relatively low levels of control and discipline.
The ability to adapt positively despite facing risk factors or adversity, often encouraged by stable family support.
A dimension of parenting that refers to the level of warmth, emotional support, and sensitivity that parents show in response to their children's needs and emotions. It is one of the two main dimensions of parenting style, with the other being demandingness.
Responsive parents are attuned to their children's feelings, desires, and developmental stages, and they provide appropriate support and guidance. They actively listen to their children, validate their emotions, and offer comfort and understanding during times of distress. Responsive parents also foster open communication, allowing children to express themselves freely without fear of judgment or punishment.
Another descendant of classical criminology that argues that low self-control, a stable personality trait, predisposes individuals to crime and other present-oriented activities.
Refers to behaviors, actions, or characteristics that violate social norms, values, or expectations within a particular society or culture. Deviance is a relative concept, as what is considered deviant in one society may be accepted or even encouraged in another. The concept of social deviance is essential for understanding how societies define and enforce acceptable behavior.
Also known as Social Cognitive Theory or Social Learning Socialization Theory, is a psychological and criminological theory developed by Albert Bandura in the 1960s. The theory proposes that individuals learn new behaviors, attitudes, and values by observing and imitating others, particularly those they perceive as role models or authority figures. Social Learning Theory emphasizes the importance of the social environment in shaping human behavior and focuses on how learned behaviors influence future actions.
Often referred to as domestic violence, is a pattern of abusive behavior or mistreatment that occurs within an intimate or familial relationship, typically between spouses or partners. It involves the use of physical, emotional, psychological, sexual, or economic tactics to exert power and control over the other person.
