Introduction to Cybercrime
Module 1 explores the intricacies of cybercrime, providing a comprehensive overview of its scientific study, classification, and the various issues, trends, and challenges it presents in the modern world. Students will learn the significance of studying cybercrime from a scientific perspective, understanding the methodologies and purpose behind such research. The course will cover a detailed classification of cybercrime, highlighting the diverse types of cyber offenses and the strategies used to categorize them. It will also explore current issues and trends in cybercrime, discussing the latest challenges faced by individuals, businesses, and governments. Key concepts related to cybercrime, such as cybersecurity measures, legal frameworks, and ethical considerations, will be thoroughly discussed to provide students with a well-rounded understanding of the subject. Finally, the module will examine the economic impact of cybercrime, assessing its costs to both victims and society at large. Furthermore, students will learn about various classification strategies, gaining the ability to distinguish between the different forms of cybercrime effectively. By the end of this module, students will have a deeper understanding of cybercrime and be equipped with the knowledge to analyze, classify, and potentially mitigate the effects of cyber activities.
Learning Objectives
After completing this module, students should be able to:
- define key concepts related to cybercrime (cybersecurity, digital forensics, legal frameworks, ethical considerations).
- identify major types of cyber offenses and examples of each.
- recall the primary purposes of studying cybercrime scientifically.
- explain why cybercrime requires scientific study in criminology.
- describe classification systems of cybercrime (e.g., computer as target, tool, or incidental).
- summarize current issues, trends, and challenges in cybercrime.
- discuss the economic and social impact of cybercrime.
- apply classification frameworks to categorize real-world cases of cybercrime.
- illustrate how cybersecurity measures are implemented to prevent or mitigate cybercrime.
- demonstrate awareness of how legal and policy frameworks address cybercrime in practice.
- distinguish between different classification strategies and evaluate their strengths/limitations.
- analyze how globalization and technological advances influence cybercrime trends.
- break down the economic costs of cybercrime for individuals, organizations, and governments.
- assess ethical considerations in responding to and preventing cybercrime.
- evaluate the effectiveness of national and international legal frameworks in addressing cybercrime.
- critique cybersecurity strategies in light of emerging threats.
Defining cybercrime involves several challenges due to the complex and ever-changing nature of technology, as well as the wide variety of criminal behaviors it enables. One main difficulty is the flexible nature of the term “cybercrime” itself. The speed of technological progress constantly broadens what is considered cybercrime, making it hard to create a fixed definition. As new technologies develop, new methods of committing crimes appear as well, requiring regular updates to legal definitions and frameworks.
Another major challenge is the wide range of activities included in cybercrime. Cybercrime covers many illegal actions, from hacking and identity theft to cyberstalking and the distribution of illegal content. The size of this spectrum makes it harder to create a single clear definition, as different stakeholders like law enforcement, lawmakers, and international groups may focus on different parts of cybercrime depending on their priorities and where they are located.
Jurisdictional issues complicate defining cybercrime further. Cybercrimes often cross national borders, making it hard to apply a consistent legal definition across different systems. Differences in laws, cultural views, and enforcement abilities between countries can cause inconsistencies in how cybercrimes are defined and prosecuted. This lack of uniformity hinders international cooperation in fighting cybercrime and creates gaps that criminals can exploit.
Furthermore, the line between cybercrime and traditional crime is becoming more blurred. Many crimes now include a digital element, which raises questions about whether they should be classified as cybercrimes or traditional crimes with cyber parts. This overlap forces legal systems to adjust to a world where the digital and physical worlds are more connected, calling for precise and adaptable definitions of cybercrime.
Computer crime involves any illegal activity carried out using a computer or networked device. This can include a variety of actions such as hacking, computer fraud, identity theft, cyberstalking, online harassment, and the spread of malicious software.
Some of the most common types of computer crime include:
- Hacking – Gaining unauthorized access to computer systems, networks, or websites.
- Computer fraud – The use of technology to deceive individuals or organizations for financial gain, including phishing scams, credit card fraud, and identity theft.
- Malware – Malicious software used to harm or interfere with computer systems, networks, or devices.
- Cyberstalking – Using technology to harass or threaten people, often via social media or other online platforms.
- Cyberbullying – Using technology to harass, intimidate, or bully people, usually via social media or other online platforms.
Computer crime is an increasing issue as more individuals and organizations depend on technology for their daily routines. To fight this type of crime, law enforcement and cybersecurity experts must collaborate to identify and prosecute offenders, while also putting proper security measures in place to prevent future breaches.
Historically, defining cybercrime has been difficult because it is a complex and ever-changing concept that covers many illegal activities in the digital world. Several factors make it hard to establish a single, universally accepted definition of cybercrime:
Because technology is constantly evolving and new innovations appear, new methods of crime and deviance also develop. What might have been considered a cybercrime in the past may not meet the current definition, as new types of cybercrimes continue to emerge.
Currently, cybercrime encompasses a wide range of activities, including hacking, identity theft, online fraud, cyberbullying, cyberterrorism, and more. Each of these involves different methods, motives, and legal issues, making it difficult to develop a comprehensive definition that includes them all.
The seemingly borderless nature of cybercrime makes it an international issue, affecting priorities, investigation methods, resources, and more. As a result, there is no single legal framework that applies worldwide. Different countries have different laws and definitions of cybercrime, which makes it even harder to develop a unified definition. Sometimes, distinguishing between legal and illegal activities in the digital space can be difficult. Actions that are harmless in one context may become illegal if used with malicious intent. For example, using certain hacking tools for security research is legal, but using the same tools for unauthorized intrusion is illegal.
The motives behind cybercrime are varied and can include financial gain, political activism, espionage, or simply malicious intent. These motives can evolve over time and may not always match traditional criminal reasons. Therefore, an interdisciplinary approach that includes criminology and social sciences is crucial for fully understanding cybercrime. It not only improves our insight into the motivations and actions behind digital offenses but also helps develop effective legal rules, law enforcement methods, and public policies to fight cyber threats in a highly connected world. Additionally, what counts as a cybercrime can differ depending on cultural, ethical, and societal standards. Some acts considered cybercrimes in one culture might not be viewed the same way elsewhere.
According to the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), many cybercrimes go unreported due to factors such as embarrassment, fear of retaliation, or lack of awareness. This makes it challenging to accurately measure the scope of cybercrime and its various forms. Given these challenges, various organizations, including governments and international agencies, have attempted to define and classify cybercrimes in a manner that encompasses the most common and harmful activities. However, these definitions are often adjusted and updated to keep up with the constantly evolving landscape of technology and criminal tactics. As a result, cybercrime remains a dynamic and complex area to define and combat effectively. That’s why studying cybercrime is essential in today’s world, where technology plays a central role in our daily lives. Despite initial hesitations and a slow start in developing research efforts, criminology and social sciences are crucial for understanding and tackling cybercrime, supporting law enforcement and investigations. Professionals in both the public and private sectors must continue to gather data and create frameworks that help understand the motivations behind engaging in digital deviance and crime.
Criminology is a discipline uniquely suited to help identify the motivations and behaviors behind cybercriminal activities. By examining the root causes and psychological factors, researchers can create profiles that assist law enforcement in predicting and responding to cyber threats. Criminological research offers insights into emerging trends and patterns in cybercrime. By analyzing data from past incidents, researchers can help law enforcement agencies anticipate future threats, enabling a proactive approach to preventing cybercrime. Social science research promotes international cooperation by fostering a shared understanding of cyber threats, legal challenges, and collaborative solutions across different countries and cultures.
Generally, the social sciences help develop legal frameworks that regulate cyberspace. Cybercrime laws are continuously updated to keep up with technological progress, and criminologists influence these laws by examining the social effects of cyber offenses. Understanding the sociological elements of cybercrime enables officers to gain the necessary skills to investigate and fight digital crimes effectively. Additionally, grasping the technical aspects of cybercrime and its societal impact is crucial for creating effective investigative strategies and tools.
Beyond detection and enforcement, the ability to contribute to victimology is important and should not be overlooked. Studying cybercrime from a social science perspective helps us to better understand its impact on victims. This knowledge is crucial for developing support systems and interventions to assist individuals and organizations affected by cyberattacks.
Key Terms/Concepts
Carter’s Classification
Confidentiality, Integrity, Availability (CIA triad)
Computer Abuse
Computer crime
Computer-related Crime
CSAM (child sexual abuse material)
Cybercrime
Cyber Victimization
Hacking
IT-enabled deviance
Ransomware
Typology
Read, Review, Watch, and Listen
- Read David L. Carter’s Computer Crime Categories: How Technology Criminals Operate (Carter, 1995) [FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, Vol. 64 (7), pp. 21-27].
- Read Lucas Coll’s What is Cybercrime? (U.S. News, Oct. 2022).
- Read in its entirety, the Introduction of Nancy E. Marion and Jason Twede’s Cybercrime an encyclopedia of digital crime (Bloomsbury Publishing USA, 2020).
- Read Bhaskar Gorti’s The invisible battlefield: Good AI vs Bad AI in the evolving cybersecurity landscape (TechradarPro, Aug. 2025).
- Review the Center for Strategic & International Studies (CSIS) Cybersecurity page.
- Review Interpol’s Cybercrime page (last accessed, August 2024)
- Review the National Security Archive’s Cyber Glossary (last accessed, August 2024)
- Watch What is Cyber Crime? (Academy, 2016) – located below [last accessed, August 2024].
- Watch Cybersecurity and Crime (Kahn Academy, July 2021) – located below.
- Listen to CSIS Inside the State Department’s Cyber Strategy: A Conversation with Adam Segal Podcast Episode by James Andrew Lewis and Christopher Painter (July 26, 2024) [last accessed, August 2025].
Activity
Students should review the course syllabus to determine the assignment of this activity.
This is a copy of the module’s activity that students find within Blackboard. For that reason, refer to the Activities page to submit your work for review.
Purpose
The purpose of this week’s activity is to explore the classification process associated with social science inquiry and consider how classification impacts understanding of, in this case, cybercrime.
Overview
Definitions of cybercrime are intractably connected to the purpose of using the term, which produces challenges for those interested in measuring the phenomenon. Interestingly, there is a limited number of acts against the confidentiality, integrity, and availability of digital information systems that represent the core of cybercrime. Beyond this, however, acts using technology to facilitate financial gain or harm fall more broadly within the meaning of the term cybercrime. To that end, definitions are required for the core of cybercrime acts. Nevertheless, a definition of cybercrime is often less relevant when defining the scope or specialized investigative powers, which are primarily focused on a comprehensive set of activities rather than a vague and artificial ‘cybercrime’ construct.
Instructions
- From this week’s module readings, reflect on your review of David Carter’s rather visionary description of computer crime categories; that is, (1) the target of the crime, (2), the instrument of the crime, (3) incidental to the crime, and (4) crimes associated with the prevalence of computers, and McQuade’s succinct overview of cybercrime.
- From this week’s module readings, reflect on your review of Gordon and Ford’s overview of definitions and the classification of cybercrime.
- Review Table I – Contemporary Constructs of IT-Enabled Abuse and Crime:
Table I – Contemporary Constructs of IT-enabled Abuse and Crime
| IT-enabled deviance | Use of computerized or telecommunications devices in ways that violate contemporary social norms |
| Computer Abuse | Use of computers to harm individuals, groups, or organizations |
| Computer Crime | One or more computers are required to commit a criminal act |
| Computer-related Crime | Computer-related acts for personal or financial gain or harm, including forms of identity-related crime, and computer content-related acts, do not lend themselves easily to efforts
to arrive at legal definitions of the aggregate term |
| Cybercrime | Computer and/or IT devices used to commit a criminal act via information systems and related infrastructure |
- Using a search engine of your choice, identify at least two publicized recent cases of ransomware or child sexual abuse material. *
* Since 2016, the reference to child pornography (CP) has become increasingly replaced with child sexual abuse material. The reasoning is that scholars and authors of related publications determined that the latter more accurately describe the nature of the crime. This is a perfect example of how important definitions are to understanding not only the nature and extent of the phenomena but also have legal implications (National Center for Missing & Exploited Children, 2021).
Answer all four (4) questions from one of the following sets:
- Using Carter’s classification scheme, do you believe that ransomware should be defined as an “instrument”; explain.
- In your opinion, what other classification scheme might better classify ransomware? Explain.
- Why does the number of cybervictims continue to grow?
- Why is computer crime often underreported?
OR
- Using Carter’s classification scheme, do you believe that child sexual abuse material should be defined as “incidental”; explain.
- In your opinion, what other classification scheme might better classify child sexual abuse material? Explain.
- Why does the number of cybervictims continue to grow?
- Why is computer crime often underreported?
Key Terms/Concepts
Carter’s classification – (1) the target of the crime, (2) the instrument of the crime, (3) incidental to the crime, and (4) crimes associated with the prevalence of computers
Computer Crime describes a broad range of offenses that are like traditional forms of the same non-computer offense, e.g., larceny or fraud. Sam McQuade III (2006) defines computer crime as “Traditional crime committed in a non-traditional way” or as what Peter N. Grabosky refers to as “The same old wine in new bottles” (OJP, 2000). Some of them are the same as non-computer offenses, such as larceny or fraud, except that a computer or the Internet is used in the commission of the crime. Others, like hacking, are uniquely related to computers. Read on to find out what kinds of activities are considered computer crimes and how to protect yourself from them.
Cybercrime is any criminal offense (e.g., fraud, theft, or distribution of child pornography [CP]) committed using a computer specially to access without authorization, transmit, or manipulate data via the Internet or otherwise aided by various forms of computer technology, such as the use of online social networks to bully others or sending sexually explicit digital photos with a smart phone.
Cyber victimization is one consequence of technology use. Cyber victimization is defined as experiencing aggressive behaviors via information and communication technologies, such as the internet, gaming consoles, and mobile phones. Gordon and Ford’s two-category scheme – a two-category scheme to classify cybercrimes into (a) Type I offenses and (b) Type II offenses.
Refer to the course learning management system (LMS), that is Blackboard (BB), for the correct due date. In addition, submit your work via BB for grading.
Discussion Questions
- Considering that technology and digital platforms are constantly evolving, how do these changes impact the definition and scope of cybercrime?
- Discuss how the dynamic nature of technology challenges law enforcement and legal frameworks in identifying and prosecuting cybercrime activities.
- Describe the implications of the borderless nature of cybercrime for international law enforcement cooperation. How do varying definitions and legal frameworks across countries complicate efforts to combat cybercrime on a global scale?
- How can criminological theories and research help in identifying the motivations behind cybercriminal activities and aid in developing effective prevention strategies?
- With cybercrime constantly evolving, what are some of the latest trends and emerging threats in the digital world? Also, discuss how law enforcement agencies can use criminological research to anticipate and prepare for future cybercrime tactics.
- Discuss the importance of studying cybercrime from a victimology perspective. How can understanding the sociological aspects of cybercrime help in developing better support systems and interventions for victims?
Supplemental Resources
- Cybersecurity & Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA)
- RAND Corporation – Cybercrime
- Conceptualizing Cybercrime: Definitions, Typologies and Taxonomies – Phillips, Kirsty, Julia C. Davidson, Ruby R. Farr, Christine Burkhardt, Stefano Caneppele, and Mary P. Aiken. 2022. “Conceptualizing Cybercrime: Definitions, Typologies and Taxonomies” Forensic Sciences 2, no. 2: 379-398. https://doi.org/10.3390/forensicsci2020028
- THE IMPACT OF COMPUTER VARIABLES ON THE VIEWING AND SENDING OF SEXUALLY EXPLICIT MATERIAL ON THE INTERNET: TESTING COOPER’S “Triple A Engine” by Lisa J. Byers, Ken S. Menzies, and William L. O’Grady Department of Sociology and Anthropology University of Guelph Guelph, Ontario.
- Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) – Internet Crime Complaint Center (IC3) Annual Reports
- The FBI’s annual reports on cybercrime trends and typologies offer insight into how different types of cybercrimes are categorized and reported in the United States.
- Journal of Cybersecurity (last accessed, August 2024).
Websites
- Cybersecurity Information Guide
- U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
- U.S. Department of Defense (DOD), Cybersecurity
- U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), National Security and Safety
- U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS), Cybersecurity
- U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
- U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Computer Security Resource Center (CSRC)
- U.S. National Security Agency (NSA)
Read, Review, Watch and Listen to all listed materials by the due date listed within the course LMS site.
Click HERE to report any needed updates, e.g., broken links.
Carter's classification includes: (1) the target of the crime, (2) the instrument of the crime, (3) incidental to the crime, and also (4) crimes associated with the prevalence of computers
The CIA triad is the foundation of information security. It ensures that data is kept private (confidentiality), remains accurate (integrity), and is accessible to the right people when needed (availability).
Use of computers to harm individuals, groups, or organizations.
Describes is a broad range of offenses that are like traditional forms of the same non-computer offense, e.g., larceny or fraud. Sam McQuade III (2006) describes computer crime as “Traditional crime committed in a non-traditional way” or as what Peter N. Grabosky refers to as, “The same old wine in new bottles” (OJP, 2000). Some of them are the same as non-computer offenses, such as larceny or fraud, except that a computer or the Internet is used in the commission of the crime. Others, like hacking, are uniquely related to computers. Read on to find out what kinds of activities are considered computer crimes and how to protect yourself from them.
Computer-related acts for personal or financial gain or harm, including forms of identity related crime, and computer content-related acts do not lend themselves easily to efforts to arrive at legal definitions of the aggregate term.
Refers to any visual depiction (such as photos, videos, or digital images) of a child engaged in sexually explicit conduct. The term is now widely used in place of “child pornography,” as it more accurately emphasizes that such content is evidence of child sexual abuse rather than a legitimate form of expression.
Is any criminal offense (e.g., fraud, theft, or distribution of child sexual abuse material [CSAM]) committed using a computer specially to access without authorization, transmit, or manipulate data via the Internet or otherwise aided by various forms of computer technology, such as the use of online social networks to bully others or sending sexually explicit digital photos with a smart phone.
Is one consequence of technology use. Cyber victimization is defined as experiencing aggressive behaviors via information and communication technologies, such as the internet, gaming consoles, and mobile phones. Gordon and Ford two-category scheme – a two-category scheme to classify cybercrimes into (a) Type I offenses and (b) Type II offenses.
The act of gaining unauthorized access to a computer system, network, or digital device. It can involve bypassing security measures, exploiting software vulnerabilities, or using social engineering to manipulate users. Hacking may be done with malicious intent (such as stealing data, spreading malware, or disrupting services) or, in some cases, for non-malicious purposes like testing system security (often called ethical hacking).
Use of computerized or telecommunications devices in ways that violate contemporary social norms.
A type of malware that prevents or limits users from accessing their system, either by locking the system's screen or by locking the users' files until a ransom is paid.
A typology is a systematic classification that organizes different phenomena into categories based on shared characteristics. In criminology, typologies are used to categorize types of crimes, offenders, or behaviors in order to understand patterns, causes, and responses better.
