Criminological Explanations of Cybercrime
Module 3 provides an overview of criminological theories that explain the causes of crime. It categorizes various theories into major groups, such as biological, psychological, sociological, and contemporary approaches, and outlines the foundational assumptions behind each. Understanding these assumptions is essential, as they shape the perspectives on why crime occurs and how society should respond. This module also emphasizes the importance of theory in understanding crime causation. Theories not only offer explanations but also influence public policy decisions and practices in both the private and public sectors. By explaining the link between theory and policy, the chapter highlights how theoretical perspectives can guide law enforcement strategies, crime prevention efforts, and rehabilitation programs. In addition, there is a focus on the relationship between criminology and cybercriminology, discussing how both fields share similarities in studying crime while differing in focus areas. Criminology traditionally examines crime within physical spaces, whereas cybercriminology focuses on digital and cyber environments. In summary, by the end of this chapter, students will gain a comprehensive understanding of the various criminological theories, their applications in policymaking, and the evolving field of cybercriminology.
Learning Objectives
After completing this module, you should be able to:
- categorize criminological theories of crime causation.
- summarize assumptions for the most substantive categories of criminological theory.
- discuss the significance of theory as it relates causation.
- explain the connection between theory and public policy as related to policy and practice within the private and public sphere.
- describe the similarities and differences between criminology and cybercriminology.
Summary
Computer crime, also known as cybercrime, refers to criminal activities that are conducted through the use of computers or other digital technologies. Criminologists have developed a number of theoretical domains to explain why individuals engage in computer crime, including:
1. Rational Choice Theory – This theory suggests that individuals engage in computer crime because they believe it is a profitable and low-risk activity. In other words, they weigh the potential benefits of committing a crime against the potential risks of getting caught and punished.
2. Social Learning Theory – This theory argues that individuals learn to engage in computer crime through observing the behaviors of others, particularly those who are close to them. They may also be influenced by media portrayals of hackers as glamorous and successful.
3. Strain Theory – This theory posits that individuals engage in computer crime when they experience strain or pressure in their lives, such as economic hardship or social exclusion. Computer crime may provide a way for them to alleviate their stress or gain a sense of power and control.
4. Routine Activities Theory – This theory suggests that computer crime occurs when there is a convergence of three factors: a motivated offender, a suitable target (such as a vulnerable computer system), and the absence of capable guardians (such as effective cybersecurity measures).
5. Self-Control Theory – This theory proposes that individuals who engage in computer crime have low levels of self-control, which makes them more likely to act impulsively and make decisions without considering the consequences.
Overall, these criminological theories help us understand the various motives, opportunities, and situational factors that contribute to computer crime. By better understanding the underlying causes of this type of criminal behavior, public and private sectors can develop more effective strategies for preventing and responding to cybercrime.
Cybercriminology as an outgrowth of traditional criminological teachings and is important for several reasons. The following provides a preliminary list of reasons that necessitate a peer-reviewed supported examination of the computer crime.
Rising Cybercrime Rates – With the increasing reliance on technology and the internet, cybercrime has become a significant threat. Cybercriminals engage in activities such as hacking, identity theft, phishing, ransomware attacks, and more. Understanding the motivations, methods, and trends of cybercriminals is crucial for developing effective countermeasures.
Economic Impact – Cybercrimes can cause significant financial losses for individuals, businesses, and governments. These losses include expenses related to data breaches, theft of intellectual property, disruption of services, and costs associated with recovery and prevention. By studying cybercriminology, researchers and practitioners can work to mitigate these economic impacts.
Technological Advancements – As technology continues to evolve, so do the techniques and tools used by cybercriminals. By studying cybercriminology, experts can stay updated on the latest tactics employed by cybercriminals and develop strategies to defend against them.
Privacy and Data Protection – Cybercrimes often involve breaches of personal and sensitive information, leading to concerns about privacy and data protection. Studying cybercriminology helps to identify vulnerabilities in data systems, improve encryption methods, and develop effective security protocols to safeguard sensitive information.
Global Reach – Cybercrimes transcend geographical boundaries. A cybercriminal from one part of the world can easily target victims in another. This global reach makes it necessary to have a comprehensive understanding of cybercriminal behavior, legal frameworks, and international cooperation to combat cybercrime effectively.
Legal and Regulatory Challenges – Cybercrimes can be complex in terms of jurisdiction, making it challenging for law enforcement to apprehend and prosecute cybercriminals. Cybercriminology helps legal experts understand the intricacies of cybercrime and develop relevant laws and regulations to address these challenges.
Public Awareness and Education – Cybercriminology research can contribute to public awareness and education about online threats and how to protect oneself from cybercrime. Educating individuals and organizations about best practices for online safety can help reduce the risk of falling victim to cybercrimes.
Cybersecurity Workforce Development – As cybercrimes become more sophisticated, there’s a growing need for skilled professionals in the field of cybersecurity. Studying cybercriminology can provide insights into the skill sets required to counter cyber threats and contribute to the development of a well-trained cybersecurity workforce.
Policy Formulation – Policymakers need accurate information to develop effective strategies to combat cybercrime. Cybercriminology research provides valuable insights into the motivations and behaviors of cybercriminals, helping policymakers make informed decisions about legislation, regulations, and international cooperation.
Prevention and Detection – Understanding the psychology and techniques of cybercriminals can help in early detection and prevention of cybercrimes. By analyzing patterns of cybercriminal behavior, experts can create better predictive models to identify potential threats before they escalate.
In essence, cybercriminology plays a critical role in enhancing our understanding of cybercriminal behavior, devising effective countermeasures, protecting sensitive information, and maintaining the overall security of digital systems and networks.
Key Takeaways
Key Terms/Concepts
Applied Criminology
Behavioral Theory
Classical School of Criminology
Correlation
Criminal Justice
Criminologist
Cybercriminology
Cyberspace
Cybervictims
Cybercrime
Determinism
Positivism
Rational Choice
Routine Activities Theory
Space Transition Theory
Social Theory
Theoretical Criminology
Theory
Modern Example
An excellent resource filled with cybercriminology related discussions that advance the field and reinforce the necessity and role of criminology within the examination and response to all forms of digital crime.
“Cybercrimeology is a podcast about cybercrime, its research and its researchers. We talk to top researchers from around the world to learn about different forms of cybercrime and their research. We learn about cybercrime theory, organized crime online, Darknet drug markets, cybercrime awareness and crime prevention, technology-facilitated intimate partner violence and much more. The podcast has been running since November of 2019 and there is still so much to learn. I am happy to have you along for the journey into this fascinating subject.” (Cybercriminology, 2024) [last accessed, February 2024]
Access the Cybercriminology podcast by clicking HERE
Read, Review, Watch and Listen
- Read Cyber Criminology: Evolution, Contribution and Impact (Karuppannan, 2018) [click Download file PDF] (pp. 1-16)
- Review TEDx Talks Cyber Crime Isn’t About Computers: It’s About Behavior (Anderson, 2017) [also embedded below]
- Watch How criminal investigations have evolved along with technology (THV11, 2012) [also embedded below / last accessed February 2024]
- Watch Careers in criminology (UniSC University of the Sunshine Coast, Aug. 30, 2021) [also embedded below]
- Watch Kahan Academy’s Rational Choice-Exchange Theory (Brown, S. 2014)
- Watch Kahan Academy’s Behavioral Theory (Desai, 2019)
- Watch Social Theories Overview (Brown, 2015)
- Watch Social Theories Overview (part 2) (Brown, 2015)
- Listen to Cybercrimeology most recent episode and voluntarily explore others (last accessed February 2024)
Activity 3 – Criminological Explanations of Cybercrime
STOP!! Students should review the course syllabus to determine the assignment of this activity.
This is a copy of the module’s activity that students find within Blackboard. For that reason, refer to the Activities page to submit your work for review.
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to introduce traditional theories of crime causation that serve as the basis of examining social phenomena.
Overview
Within the framework of classical/choice theory, perceptions of opportunities to commit crime are very important. Routine activities theory builds on this foundation by claiming that crimes are more likely to be committed by motivated offenders who have suitable targets in the absence of capable guardians. Routine activities of perpetrators, as well as those of potential victims and other actors, thus result in opportunities for committing and preventing cybercrimes with technology. As such, routine activities theory has important implications for understanding crimes committed with or prevented with computers, other electronic IT devices, or information systems.
One measure of situational crime prevention is target hardening. Target hardening makes it more difficult or increases the amount of effort needed for offenders to carry out crimes on specific targets. The use of locked doors, windows, alarm systems, watchdogs, and community crime watch programs are all examples of target hardening–making it harder to become a victim of crime.
Instructions
- Locate a computer crime or IT-enabled abuse news story using a search engine of your choice, e.g., Google, or an electronic COD library resource.
- Review the tenets of routine activities theory (RAT) as introduced within Chapter 3 (see pp. 50-51)
- Watch Cybercrime isn’t about computers” It’s about behavior by Adam Anderson (https://youtu.be/c_2Ja-OTmGc)
- As a byproduct of rational choice theory (i.e., routine activities), review Arizona State University Center for Problem-Oriented Policing’s Twenty-Five Techniques of Situational Prevention [https://popcenter.asu.edu/sites/default/files/library/25%20techniques%20grid.pdf] (University, 2021)
User: n/a – Added: 5/17/17
Answer the following questions:
- Think about the crime example that you located and explain how that might have been prevented. Incorporate techniques of situational prevention into the explanation.
- In your own words, explain how technology (specifically cyber-space) has changed behavior (if at all) and explain what methods of reducing opportunity are necessary to reduce the prevalence of cybercrime.
AND Answer one of the following three questions:
- Use rational choice exchange theory to explain “Why?” cybercrime happens.
- Use behavioral theory to explain “Why?” cybercrime happens.
- Use social theory to explain “Why?” cybercrime happens.
Key Terms/Concepts
Behavioral theory or behaviorism is the second major psychological theory. This theory maintains that human behavior is developed through learning experiences. The hallmark of behavioral theory is the notion that people alter or change their behavior according to the reactions this behavior elicits in other people (Bandura, 1978).
Cybercriminology combines coursework in Criminal Justice and Computer Science to study the growing problem of computer crime.
Rational choice in criminology adopts a utilitarian belief that humans are reasoning actors who weigh means and ends, costs and benefits, in order to make a rational choice. This method was designed by Cornish and Clarke to assist in thinking about situational crime prevention.
Routine Activities Theory– According to Cohen and Felson, crime occurs when there is a convergence in time and space of three factors: (1) motivated offender, (2) suitable target, and (3) the absence of a capable guardian, e.g., inadequate software protection.
Social theory is an empirically tested set of ideas within the social sciences, e.g., social process, that views criminality as a function of people’s interactions with various organizations, institutions, and processes in society; people in all walks of life have the potential to become criminals if they maintain destructive social relationships.
Theory is an attempt to answer the question of “Why?” within the framework of established propositions that provide the basis for an empirical examination.
Refer to the course learning management system (LMS); that is Blackboard (BB), for the correct due date. In addition, submit your work via BB for grading.
Supplemental Resources
- On-line Activities Guardianship and Malware Infection-An Examination of Routine Activities Theory (A. Bossler & T. Hold, 2009 International Journal of Cyber Criminology (IJCC) ISSN: 0974 – 2891 January – June 2009, Vol 3 (1): 400–420.
- International Journal of Cybercriminology (last accessed, February 2024)
- Specialize in Cyber Criminology at UQ – UQ Humanities, Arts and Social Sciences (last accessed, February 2024)
- Enhancing relationships between criminology and cybersecurity (Dupont, Benoit & Whelan, Chad. (2021). Enhancing relationships between criminology and cybersecurity. Journal of Criminology. 54. 000486582110039. 10.1177/00048658211003925.)
Read, Review, Watch and Listen to all listed materials by the due date listed within the course LMS site.
Click HERE to report any needed updates, e.g., broken links.
A multidisciplinary field that utilizes theories, research methods, and practical knowledge to address and solve real-world problems related to crime, criminal behavior, and the criminal justice system. It involves the practical application of criminological theories and concepts to develop strategies and interventions that can prevent crime, reduce criminal behavior, and improve the functioning of the criminal justice system.
Applied criminology draws from various disciplines such as sociology, psychology, law, anthropology, and public policy. Its primary focus is on practical outcomes and the implementation of evidence-based practices to create safer communities, enhance the effectiveness of law enforcement agencies, and promote social justice.
Professionals working in applied criminology may engage in a range of activities, including conducting research to evaluate the effectiveness of crime prevention programs, analyzing crime patterns and trends, developing policies and interventions to address specific crime issues, providing expertise and guidance to law enforcement agencies, advocating for criminal justice reform, and working with communities to implement crime prevention strategies.
Overall, applied criminology aims to bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and real-world application, with the goal of reducing crime, improving the criminal justice system, and creating safer societies.
Also known as behaviorism is the second major psychological theory. This theory maintains that human behavior is developed through learning experiences. The hallmark of behavioral theory is the notion that people alter or change their behavior according to the reactions this behavior elicits in other people (Bandura, 1978).
A theory of crime and punishment that originated in the 18th century and was developed by various Enlightenment thinkers, most notably Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham. It is considered one of the foundational theories of criminology. The classical school of criminology is based on the idea of free will and rational choice. It posits that individuals are rational beings who weigh the potential benefits and costs of their actions before engaging in criminal behavior. According to this perspective, people choose to commit crimes when the perceived benefits outweigh the potential risks or punishments.
Refers to a statistical measure that quantifies the relationship or association between two or more variables. It describes the extent to which changes in one variable are related to changes in another variable. Correlation does not imply causation, meaning that a correlation between two variables does not necessarily indicate that one variable causes the other to change. Correlation analysis is widely used in various fields, including statistics, social sciences, economics, and medical research. It helps researchers and analysts understand the degree and direction of association between variables, identify patterns, make predictions, and guide decision-making. However, it is important to note that correlation alone does not establish a cause-and-effect relationship between variables, as other factors or variables may be involved.
Refers to the system of practices and institutions established by governments to maintain social order, deter, and control crime, and administer justice to those who violate the law. It encompasses a broad range of processes, organizations, and individuals involved in the detection, investigation, prosecution, and punishment of criminal offenses.
A professional who studies the causes, consequences, prevention, and control of criminal behavior. Criminology is a multidisciplinary field that draws from various disciplines, including sociology, psychology, law, anthropology, and criminal justice. Criminologists apply scientific methods and theories to analyze and understand crime patterns, criminal behavior, and the functioning of the criminal justice system.
The work of a criminologist can vary depending on their specialization and the context in which they operate. Some common roles and responsibilities of criminologists include:
1. Criminologists conduct empirical research to examine crime trends, identify risk factors for criminal behavior, and evaluate the effectiveness of crime prevention programs and policies. They collect and analyze data, design research studies, and interpret findings to contribute to the knowledge and understanding of crime and its implications.
2. Criminologists develop and assess strategies and interventions aimed at preventing crime and reducing recidivism. They work with communities, law enforcement agencies, policymakers, and other stakeholders to implement evidence-based practices and policies that promote public safety and crime reduction.
3. Criminologists analyze existing laws, policies, and practices within the criminal justice system to assess their impact and effectiveness. They provide recommendations for policy reform and improvements based on their research findings and understanding of criminological theories.
4. Some criminologists specialize in the field of criminal profiling, where they use psychological and behavioral analysis to create profiles of unknown criminals based on crime scene evidence and patterns. They assist law enforcement agencies in investigations by providing insights into the likely characteristics and motivations of offenders.
5. Criminologists often work in academic institutions, teaching criminology courses and mentoring students. They contribute to the education and training of future professionals in the field of criminal justice. Additionally, criminologists may engage in public outreach and advocacy, promoting evidence-based policies and raising awareness about criminal justice issues.
Overall, criminologists play a crucial role in understanding, analyzing, and addressing issues related to crime, criminal behavior, and the criminal justice system. Their work aims to inform policy, improve crime prevention strategies, and contribute to the development of effective and fair criminal justice practices.
Combines coursework within the behavioral sciences and Computer Science to study the growing problem of computer crime.
The virtual environment created by interconnected computers and networks, where information and communication take place.
The individuals or groups who suffer harm or loss as a result of cyber crimes, such as identity theft, cyber bullying, online fraud, etc.
Is any criminal offense (e.g., fraud, theft, or distribution of child sexual abuse material [CSAM]) committed using a computer specially to access without authorization, transmit, or manipulate data via the Internet or otherwise aided by various forms of computer technology, such as the use of online social networks to bully others or sending sexually explicit digital photos with a smart phone.
A philosophical concept that posits that every event or phenomenon, including human actions and choices, is causally determined by preceding events and conditions. It suggests that there is a fixed chain of cause and effect in the universe, and given the same circumstances, the same outcome will always occur.
According to determinism, free will is an illusion, and human behavior is ultimately governed by factors beyond individual control, such as genetics, environment, upbringing, and societal influences. It suggests that individuals do not have true autonomy or the ability to make choices that are independent of causal factors.
Within criminology refers to a theoretical approach that emphasizes the application of scientific methods and empirical observation in the study of crime and criminal behavior. It emerged in the late 19th century as a response to the limitations of earlier philosophical and moralistic explanations of crime.
In criminology adopts a utilitarian belief that humans are reasoning actors who weigh means and ends, costs and benefits, in order to make a rational choice. This method was designed by Cornish and Clarke to assist in thinking about situational crime prevention.
According to Cohen and Felson, crime occurs when there is a convergence in time and space of three factors: (1) motivated offender, (2) suitable target, and (3) the absence of a capable guardian, e.g., inadequate software protection.
A theoretical framework proposed by Jaishankar in 2008 to explain the causation of cyber crimes. It argues that people behave differently when they move from one space to another, such as from physical space to cyber space.
Is an empirically tested set of ideas within the social sciences, e.g., social process, that views criminality as a function of people's interactions with various organizations, institutions, and processes in society; people in all walks of life have the potential to become criminals if they maintain destructive social relationships.
Refers to the study of crime and criminal behavior through the lens of various theoretical perspectives. It seeks to understand the causes, patterns, and dynamics of crime by developing and applying theoretical frameworks. Theoretical criminology plays a crucial role in shaping our understanding of crime, informing policy and interventions, and guiding research in the field of criminology.
Theoretical criminology encompasses a wide range of perspectives and theories, each offering different explanations and insights into criminal behavior.
An attempt to answer the question of "Why?" within the framework of established propositions that provide the basis for an empirical examination.
