Glossary

Developmental period during which children become more intentional and systematic their planning and goal pursuit

the minimum amount of stimulus energy that can be detected in ideal conditions

encourages clients to accept negative and troubling thoughts

the process through which the lens changes its shape to focus light onto the retina

a common neurotransmitter in the peripheral nervous system

a test designed to measure whether the test taker has met particular learning goals

the period during which classical conditioning occurs

an electrical signal (voltage) that travels down a neuron’s axon; it results from the movement of positive ions into and out of the axon

the electrical charging of a neuron, which readies it to communicate with other neurons

a theory that proposes that dreams begin when random bursts of neural activity occur in the brainstem while in REM sleep. These neural signals reach the forebrain, especially the limbic system, where the brain tries to weave them into a coherent story.

a communication strategy in which the listener paraphrases what he or she hears without evaluating.

our tendency to attribute others’ behavior to dispositional causes, and our own behavior to situational causes.

specific traits that help an individual to survive

a method in behavior genetics in which children with different biological parents but the same adopted family are compared in order to assess the impact of a shared environment

glands located on top of the kidneys; they release glucocorticoids and epinephrine as part of the stress response

predicting our future emotions, usually in response to some present or possible future event

denotes a person who does not identify with a gender

any behavior that is intended to harm another living being.

a drug that increases the activity of a type of neurotransmitter

an anxiety disorder marked by anxiety about being unable to escape from or get help in a situation in which a panic attack is expected

a step-by-step procedure that guarantees a correct solution to a problem

reasonably fast, fairly strong brain waves that are produced right before you fall asleep

a progressive, fatal disorder characterized by memory loss, other cognitive symptoms, and personality change

the fluid-filled sac that houses the developing fetus; it acts as a shock absorber and temperature regulator.

an almond shaped forebrain area that is important for emotions

a problem solving technique that involves noting similarities between concepts or problems

a group of hormones that play a role in male traits and reproductive activity; a fetus that is exposed to androgens will develop male sex organs.

loss of interest or pleasure in nearly all activities

a negatively charged particle

an eating disorder in which the affected individual is extremely anxious about being overweight and adopts extreme weight-control measures. To be diagnosed, the individual must weigh less than the minimum normal weight (for age, gender, and sexual development level)

a drug that decreases the activity of a type of neurotransmitter

a personality disorder marked by a lack of regard for the rights of other people

a feeling roughly similar to nervousness or fear

a category of psychological disorders marked by very distressing anxiety or maladaptive behaviors to relieve anxiety

acknowledging a positive situation, finding meaning, and experiencing positive emotions connected to it

a test designed to predict the test taker’s future performance

a tract of nerve fibers connecting Broca's area to Wernicke's area

a set of statements in which the beginning statements lead to a conclusion

interpreting a new experience or piece of information by understanding that it is an example of an existing scheme

learning based on making a connection between two events in the environment, or stimuli (classical conditioning), or between behavior and its consequences (operant conditioning)

that idea that everything you think and feel can be traced to electrochemical activity in your brain

an emotional bond between a child and another specific person, often (but not necessarily) a parent

a psychological tendency that people express by evaluating some entity with favor or disfavor

the process of explaining the causes of someone else’s behavior

Mistaken conclusion that someone’s behavior is a result of personality only and not any possible environmental reasons.

In conversation, when a speaker assesses that different listeners require that different information be provided in order to make an utterance understandable. As a result, we tailor our utterances to the specific audience we are talking to.

encoding from working memory into long-term memory by paying attention to the sounds of words only

parenting style characterized by demands for unquestioning obedience; often makes use of harsh and physical punishment

a personality marked by high conventionality, a need to submit to authority, a commitment to harsh punishment, and general hostility

parenting style characterized by firm rules for children, along with explanation of the rules and an opportunity for children to have some autonomy

sometimes called directive or authoritarian leadership, it is leading through ordering; the leader does all of the decision making

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and internal organs.

udging the frequency or likelihood of some event type according to how easily examples of the event can be called to mind (i.e., how available they are to memory)

the single tube in a neuron that carries an electrical signal away, toward other neurons

a language stage that begins between 6-9 months; consists of strings of vowel and consonant sounds

the energy requirements for the basic functions of life.

any observable response in an organism

the psychological subfield that estimates the contribution of genes and environment for specific psychological tendencies and traits

The tendency to hold onto beliefs even in the face of contradictory evidence.

an inclination, tendency, leaning, or prejudice

denotes a person who identifies with both genders

distance cues that require the use of two eyes

a tool that allows you to see aspects of your physical state, such as muscular tension or heart rate, as some visual stimulus, such as a number

the subfield of psychology that focuses on the biological influences of mental processes and behavior

an embryo about one week after fertilization (in humans); it resembles a hollowed-out ball of cells.

a measure of weight in relation to height; BMI is used to estimate whether an individual is overweight or obese

perceptual processing that leads to recognition by beginning with individual features in the world and “building up” a final recognition

synchronized pattern of brain activity that takes place as electrochemical signals flow across neurons

an area in the left frontal lobe important for speech production; it works closely with Wernicke's area in the temporal lobe

an area in the left frontal lobe that plays a very important role in producing speech.

an eating disorder characterized by periods of binge eating (eating large amounts of food) followed by some behavior intended to counteract the overeating

the common finding that individuals will fail to help others during an emergency.

neurotransmitters that are chemically similar to THC, the active drug in marijuana

A research method in which a researcher examines an individual in great detail.

the release of anger through the expression of it.

A comprehensive theory of human cognitive ability that organizes intelligence in three levels, from the highest general intelligence level, through intermediate broad abilities, and to more than 70 narrow abilities.

the brain and spinal cord; the command center of the nervous system

a persuasion strategy that employs solid reasoning and strong arguments.

a brain area located underneath and behind the main part of the brain, it looks like a miniature brain; it is responsible for coordinating movements and helping fine tune cognitive responses

the wrinkled surface of the brain that plays important roles in perception, movement, and higher intellectual function

a doubled string of genes; each species has a specific number of chromosomes

a unit of meaningful information

biological patterns of activity throughout the 24-hour day

denotes a person who identifies as the gender that matches their biological sex

a type of associative learning, in which two stimuli are associated, or linked, with each other

a humanistic therapy developed by Carl Rogers. It uses unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathetic understanding

the psychology subfield that deals with the understanding and treatment of mental illness or psychological disorders

a Gestalt principle that says that we tend to fill in missing perceptual information

a fluid-filled tube that contains hair cells, the auditory receptors

power that comes from the ability to threaten punishments if orders are not followed

an aroused feeling that results from holding two contradictory cognitions at the same time. An individual is motivated to reduce the dissonance.

a field which combines traditional cognitive psychological research methodology with advanced brain imaging techniques

a simple combination of methods derived from cognitive theory and behavioral or learning theory

In conversation, a judgment of the knowledge shared between two people, which allows certain information to go unstated and unexplained

a perceptual principle that says that objects that are found in the same space tend to be grouped together

love that is marked by high levels of commitment and emotional intimacy.

An experiment in which a researcher simultaneously manipulates two or more independent variables.

a repetitive action or thought (think of it as a physical or mental act) that is intended to reduce the anxiety of an obsession

a mental representation of a category of things in the world

a pictorial representation of the relationships between a set of related concepts

Piaget's third stage of cognitive development; the child can use reversible mental procedures in concrete (as opposed to abstract) situations

in classical conditioning, an organism’s learned response to a conditioned stimulus

In classical conditioning, an environmental event that an organism associates with an unconditioned stimulus; the conditioned stimulus begins to lead to a reaction that is similar to an unconditioned response.

light receptors located mostly in the center of the retina; they are responsible for color vision and visual acuity

The tendency to notice and pay attention to information that confirms your prior beliefs and to ignore information that disconfirms them.

engaging in a behavior because others around you have, “going along with the crowd.”

A variable that varies along with the independent variable. If confounding variables are not controlled, the researcher cannot conclude with confidence that any change in the dependent variable was caused by the independent variable. Same as extraneous variable.

a Gestalt principle that says that objects that are connected to one another will be grouped together

the part of the personality consisting of current thoughts

awareness of stimuli from the outside world, of our own thoughts and feelings, and of our selves

the realization that the amount of a given substance does not change, even though its appearance might

the feeling that you are better than someone else

a technique of estimating validity by having an expert judge whether the test samples from an appropriate range of skills and knowledge

a top-down processing effect in which the information that surrounds a target stimulus leads an individual to perceive the stimulus in a way that fits into the context

reinforcement that occurs after every appearance of a behavior. It leads to rapid learning; when the reinforcement stops, extinction is rapid

The group to which the experimental group is compared.

A sample in which the researcher selects participants who are easy or convenient to find.

a language stage that begins around 2-3 months; mostly consisting of vowel sounds

the transparent outer surface of the eyeball; it protects the eye and begins focusing light rays

a brain structure that connects the left to the right hemisphere

A relationship between two variables.

A statistic that measures the direction and strength of a relationship between two numerical variables. The sign of the correlation coefficient indicates the direction, and the number itself indicates the strength of the relationship.

Research conducted with the goal to discover relationships or associations between variables

our tendency to attribute people’s behavior to dispositional causes.

our tendency to attribute people’s behavior to dispositional causes.

replacing a conditioned response with an incompatible new conditioned response; it is the basis of some behavioral therapies

a discredited belief that a person’s skull size and shape reflected their race, intelligence, morality, and other characteristics.

Thinking like a scientist in your everyday life for the purpose of drawing correct conclusions. It entails skepticism; an ability to identify biases, distortions, omissions, and assumptions; and excellent deductive and inductive reasoning, and problem solving skills.

an individual’s accumulated store of knowledge and the ability to apply the knowledge to solve problems

knowledge, customs and other behavior that are created by a group (such as a society, ethnic group, or nation), and that members learn by being part of that group.

memory for facts and episodes

a type of reasoning in which the conclusion is guaranteed to be true any time the statements leading up to it are true

an argument for which true beginning statements guarantee that the conclusion is true

strategies that the ego uses to relieve anxiety that results from unwanted impulses

a strategy of lowering one’s expectations in a situation in which failure might damage self-esteem

slow brain waves that occur during deep sleep (Stage 3 and 4)

false beliefs

a serious loss of cognitive abilities as a result of disease or disorder

sometimes called participatory leadership, the leader shares some of the power and allows subordinates to participate in decision making

one of the many branches on a neuron that receive incoming signals

The supposed effect. This is what the researcher measures.

a social norm that is based on the actual behavior that group members do

Research conducted with the goal of describing individuals' or groups' characteristics.

Statistical procedures that are used to summarize information.

strategies that are difficult to use and make you feel as if you are not learning, but lead to much more effective and lasting learning

the smallest difference between two stimuli that can be detected

the tendency for particles to move from areas of high concentration to areas of lower concentration

one of the reasons for the bystander effect; individuals fail to take responsibility to help in an emergency when other people are present.

treating people differently because of stereotyping and prejudice.

rules for how and when emotions should be expressed outwardly.

an explanation of someone’s behavior that focuses on stable personality traits of the actor

an explanation of someone’s behavior that focuses on the stable personality traits of the actor.

a category of psychological disorders marked by dissociation, a split in consciousness

a dissociative disorder marked by a split between parts of the personality. The sufferer exhibits two or more separate personalities.

A strategy in which individual researchers choose small elements from a broad theory or from a complex phenomenon, and they develop research ideas that pertain to those specific elements.

the process of focusing on more than one stimulus or task at the same time, often called multitasking

deoxyribonucleic acid; these are the molecules that make up genes

the gene version that codes the trait that the offspring will inherit when the parents contribute different versions

a neurotransmitter that is released in the midbrain and some areas of the forebrain that is related to reward

the internal body state that characterizes a motivation

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition. This is the book that psychologists and psychiatrists use to diagnose psychological disorders.

individuals who are less competent tend to overestimate their abilities more than individuals who are more competent do

the tendency to overestimate how long our future emotions will last

a machine that records the general level and speed of neural activity in different parts of the brain through electrodes that are placed on the scalp

the part of the personality that juggles the demands of the id, the superego, and the real-world consequences of our actions.

the ability to reason from an individual’s point of view only

a theory that explains how different attempts to persuade others will be successful based on the targets’ likelihood that they will scrutinize the attempt.

an encoding technique that encourages semantic processing by restating to-be-remembered information in your own words, as if teaching it to someone else

the developing cells during the early period of gestation, the first 8-weeks in humans.

brain-and-body states that are experienced as strong feelings, such as arousal, pleasure, or displeasure

a coping strategy in which people seek to manage their distressing feelings

brain-and-body states that are experienced as strong feelings, such as arousal, pleasure, or displeasure

the ability to identify with someone else’s emotions.

Derived from experience. Empirical observations are the fundamental basis of science

putting information into memory systems

the system of hormone-producing glands located throughout the body

a class of neurotransmitters that are chemically similar to opiate drugs; they function to relieve pain and elevate mood

commonly known as adrenaline, it functions as a neurotransmitter in the fast stress response, and a hormone in the slow stress response

the part of declarative memory that refers to specific events or episodes from someone’s life

different body areas through which the id derives pleasure during the psychosexual stages.

a group of hormones that play a role in female traits and reproductive activity

a misuse of evolutionary principles which attempted to selectively breed humans to remove “unwanted” traits from humanity

Brain-imaging techniques cannot observe neurogenesis, but they can reveal areas with more or fewer neurons than expected, often assumed a result of the rate of neurogenesis (Shelene, 2003).

the use of therapies that have been justified by research

the subfield of psychology that focuses on understanding the human mind/brain from an evolutionary perspective

a signal entering at a neuron’s dendrites or cell body instructing the neuron to transmit its own signal

phase of sexual response when genitals become aroused.

a top-down processing effect in which having an expectation leads an individual to perceive some stimulus to be consistent with the expectation

A research method in which the researcher manipulates a supposed cause and measures the supposed effect. It is the research method that allows one to conclude that one variable causes another one.

The group in which the researcher is interested.

power that comes from subordinates’ belief that the leader has greater knowledge about the important tasks involved in the job

The degree to which the results of an experiment can be generalized to the outside world.

in classical conditioning, the fading away of a conditioned response after repeated presentation of a conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus

A variable that varies along with the independent variable. If extraneous variables are not controlled, the researcher cannot conclude with confidence that any change in the dependent variable was caused by the independent variable.

motivations that are associated with the benefits associated with achieving a goal.

a statistical technique that reduces a large number of individually scaled items into a small number of related dimensions, or factors.

The tendency to overestimate the degree to which other people agree with us.

A type of oversimplification in which a potential explanations are presented as a strict either/or possibility. As a result, a phenomenon is incorrectly explained as resulting from one cause to the exclusion of all others.

specialized neurons in the primary visual cortex that fire only when you are looking at a specific feature, such as a vertical line or a diagonal line

a condition in children that results from moderate levels of alcohol exposure during the mother's pregnancy.

a condition in a child that results from alcohol exposure during the mother's pregnancy.

the developing baby after 8 weeks of gestation.

a Gestalt principle that says that we can shift our attention to pick out one part of a scene and to shift the rest to the background

when a problem solver gets stuck looking at a problem a particular way and cannot change his or her representation of it (or his or her intended solution strategy)

when an early-life conflict is resolved poorly, the id gets stuck in a psychosexual stage, and the adult ego must use energy to continue to try to resolve it throughout life

the common name for the set of arousing responses produced by the sympathetic nervous system; they are designed to prepare the body to face some physical danger by fighting it or fleeing from it

a behavior therapy in which a client is exposed immediately to the feared stimuli of a phobia in an unescapable situation

an individual’s speedy reasoning ability

structures of the brain that process sensory information, regulate emotions, and carry out higher intellectual functions

Piaget's fourth, and final, stage of cognitive development; individual can use reversible mental procedures in any situation, can think logically and hypothetically

the area in the center of the retina (with many cones); it is the area with the best visual acuity

theory that having older brothers increases the likelihood that a male will have a same-gender orientation.

a common technique used in psychodynamic therapy, it involves having a client say whatever comes to mind

A type of chart that shows how many research participants received each possible score (or gave each possible rating).

a relationship between two people that they choose to create and is based on mutual affection

the lobes in the front of the cortex that contain the prefrontal cortex and the primary motor cortex

a specific type of fixation in which a problem solver cannot think of a new use for an object that already has a function

a brain imaging technique that measures the release of oxygen from blood cells in the brain, allowing researchers to track brain structures and their functions

our tendency to attribute people’s behavior to dispositional causes.

the most common inhibitory neurotransmitter

a person’s inner feelings about being male or female.

when a person behaves or dresses like the societal expectations of another gender.

the behaviors that a particular culture finds acceptable for males versus females.

denotes a person whose gender identity changes over time

the basic unit of material that gets transmitted from parents to offspring

the complete set of all genes in a species

the genetic coding that underlies a specific observed trait

a set of principles that describe how be organize sensory input, mostly by grouping or separating individual parts; they were originally discovered by Gestalt psychologists in the early 20th century

types of cells, other than neurons, in the nervous system

hormones that are released by the adrenal glands as a major part of the slow stress response

the most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain

cognitive representation of an outcome that influences our thoughts, evaluations, emotions, and behaviors.

sex glands; they produce sex hormones.

a Gestalt principle that says that we have a preference for seeing patterns that are smooth continuous forms

being thankful to an outside source for some positive situation or outcome

a situation in which a cohesive group with a strong leader engages in poor decision-making

non-associative learning type in which the repetition of some stimulus over time leads to a reduced reaction to the stimulus

a technique that researchers use to demonstrate infant memory by showing that infants look longer at new objects than familiar ones

the auditory receptors; they vibrate when stimulation from the oval window reaches them

the three bones that are connected to the tympanic membrane; they transmit vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the inner ear

A type of oversimplification in which some research results are distorted through the creation of a very short summary, a headline as if in a newspaper.

a phenomenon in which we tend to adapt to our circumstances and judge our happiness by comparing the current situation to the recent past

the biological transmission of traits from parents to offspring

the proportion of variability in a trait throughout a group that is related to genetic differences in the group

a shortcut strategy that we use to make judgments and solve problems. Although they are easy to use, they do not guarantee correct judgments and solutions

a later round of classical conditioning in which a former conditioned stimulus becomes an unconditioned stimulus and then becomes associated with a new conditioned stimulus

the structures of the brain most closely related to basic survival functions

The mistaken belief that some event or explanation is something that you already knew or that you foresaw.

a forebrain area near the thalamus that is important for storing memories

aggression fueled by anger.

changes in thinking and reasoning that result from emotions and motivations.

a good feeling about yourself (similar to pride) that is unrelated to any specific actions

a psychological approach based on the belief that human beings have a natural orientation to develop and reach their full potential.

a type of psychological therapy that assumes that people have a basic orientation toward growth; the therapist’s main role is to help clients to find the ability to solve their problems within themselves

sleeping too much

brief dreamlike images and sensations that are produced during Stage 1 / NREM 1 sleep

a method that enables one person (the hypnotized subject) to focus his or her attention on another individual (the hypnotist) or on stimuli that the hypnotist emphasizes. The hypnotist then gives suggestions with which the hypnotized subject is likely to comply.

a four day period over which a person experiences the same symptoms as required for a manic episode

a forebrain area just below the thalamus; it plays a role in motivation and it controls the pituitary gland

A prediction that is generated from a theory.

the part of the personality that contains our unconscious biological drives.

people’s sense of self, the important aspects of their lives that make them unique

the tendency to overestimate the intensity of our future emotions 

attitudes that people are unable or unwilling to express openly but nevertheless affect their behavior (see implicit bias)

biases that people are unable or unwilling to express openly but nevertheless affect their behavior (see implicit attitude)

an external cue that directs motivated behavior

The supposed cause. This is what the researcher manipulates.

a type of reasoning in which we make judgments about likelihood from sets of evidence

an inductive argument in which the beginning statements lead to a conclusion that is probably true

adults’ near complete lack of memory for events from early childhood

an assumption about the truth of something that is not stated. Inferences come from our prior knowledge and experience, and from logical reasoning

Statistical procedures that are used to draw conclusions, or inferences.

a peripheral route persuasion technique that involves making oneself more appealing by using flattery or doing favors (or some similar activity) for someone

social group to which a person psychologically identifies as being a member

a signal entering at a neuron’s dendrites or cell body instructing the neuron to not transmit its own signal

a social norm that is based on the behaviors that are approved or disapproved by a group.

a sudden realization of a solution to a problem

A committee composed of members of an institution where research is to be conducted and community members, whose job it is to approve or disapprove individual research projects and to ensure that ethical guidelines are followed when those projects are conducted.

aggression that is used to achieve some other end.

a technique for measuring reliability by examining the similarity of an individual’s sub-score for different parts of the test

a modern offshoot of psychodynamic therapy that focuses on conflicts or problems in a client’s current relationships

understanding and sharing private thoughts, fears, and feelings with another person

motivations that are associated with the process of pursuing a goal. 

an electrically charged particle

a muscle that controls the amount of light entering the eye by expanding or contracting the size of the pupil

a detailed description of a job; it can contain information about the types of tasks to be performed, the skills required for a worker to succeed at the job, or both

a technique to increase employees’ motivation by giving them more responsibility and independence

bursts of a single higher-voltage wave that occur in Stage 2 sleep

the process through which our visual system enhances contrast by reducing the firing of neighboring cells when a target area is stimulated by light

a phenomenon in which an individuals might become depressed because they learn that they have no control over their situation and give up

changing knowledge and behavior as a result of experience

located right behind the pupil, it focuses light to land on the retina

strategies that affect how well a memory is encoded. Craik and Tulving’s research demonstrates that deeper processing (that is, semantic encoding) leads to better memory than shallower processing (that is, encoding based on auditory and visual properties)

neurons at the back of the eye that react to light; there are two kinds: rods and cones

a group of forebrain areas that are important in emotions, among other functions

the process of perceiving where something is - how far away and in which direction - and whether or not it is moving

an essentially unlimited, nearly permanent memory storage system

a research technique in which groups of participants are followed over time in order to examine changes in individuals

the active phase of bipolar I disorder. Often involves high energy and good mood; it can also include irritability, inflated self-esteem, feelings of grandiosity, and delusions.

placing importance on money, possessions, image, and status

The arithmetic average of a distribution (add up all scores and divide by the number of scores); a measure of central tendency.

A descriptive statistic that conveys what a typical score of a distribution is.

A descriptive statistic that conveys how spread out a distribution is.

The score in the middle of a distribution (half the scores are above, half are below); a measure of central tendency.

the structure at the base of the brain where it begins to widen after leaving the spinal cord; it is responsible for heart beat and breathing

a hormone that is released by the pineal gland and makes us sleepy

the process of building up a recollection of an event, rather than “playing” a memory, as if it were a recording

withdrawing information from long-term memory into working memory

reversible mental procedures that can be used to solve problems or reason about the world

functions within the brain

a specific type of fixation in which a problem solver gets stuck using the same solution strategy that has been successful in the past

an increase in affection or preference for an object or person resulting from repeated exposure to it.

knowledge about one’s own cognitive processes; thinking about your thinking

structures of the brain closely related to processing sensory information and movements

the movement of neurons to their point of origin to their eventual location in the developing brain.

a therapy that explicitly combines ideas from cognitive therapy with mindfulness meditation

a memory distortion that results when misleading information is presented to people after an event has occurred

The most frequently occurring score in a distribution; a measure of central tendency.

racial stereotypes, prejudice, and discrimination that can be hidden behind some other motive or belief.

distance cues that require the use of a single eye only. They include linear perspective, interposition, relative size, relative height, texture gradient, and motion parallax.

an affective state that is less intense and longer-lasting than emotions.

a phenomenon in which people tend to remember events that are consistent with their current emotions or moods.

a category of psychological disorders that have a disturbed mood as the main feature. They include depressive disorders and bipolar disorders from the DSM-5.

an individual's emotions or motivation lead them to think critically only about information that disagrees with what they believe.

an internal desire or need that energizes an individual and directs his or her behavior.

a model of attention that suggests that our attentional filter is flexible; we can monitor the contents of filtered-out information depending on tasks demands

process through which input from separate sensory modalities combine to produce a perception that is stronger than the individual contribution of the modalities

the amount of lean muscle tissue in a body.

a substance that covers many of the brain’s neuron’s axons; it protects the axon and speeds up the action potential by allowing it to jump from one non-myelinated section to the next

the process in which myelin sheaths develop to cover many axons throughout the nervous system.

The search for explanations about human behavior and mental processes without the benefit of scientifically gathered evidence.

the key concept in Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution; traits that helped an individual to survive are more likely to be passed from parent to offspring and become more common in future generations

 A research method in which a researcher observes participants in their natural environment, without their knowledge and without interfering in the behavior in any way.

a strong motivation to set high standards for oneself, and to work hard to achieve those standards

a strong motivation to satisfy one’s need for interpersonal relationships

a strong motivation to influence others

in operant conditioning, punishment that occurs because of the removal of something good

in operant conditioning, reinforcement that occurs because of the removal of something bad

symptoms that represent the loss of normal behavior

parenting style characterized by a lack of attention to and care for children

interconnected group of neurons

primitive nerve cells that have the ability to develop into any cells of the nervous system.

the embryonic precursor to the central nervous system.

a theory that proposes that a specific neural network in the the limbic system, areas surrounding the limbic system, and specific parts of the cortex is responsible for dreaming. Dreams occur when this network becomes active without any external stimulation.

the creation of new neurons in the nervous system

the basic cell of the nervous system; our brain has billions of neurons

drugs that work by influencing the neural transmission process in some way

the understanding of brain and behavior through the discovery of the neural actions of drugs

the study of how drugs affect the neural communication process

chemical that carries a neural signal from one neuron to another

the chemicals that carry signals between neurons throughout the nervous system

In classical conditioning, an environmental event that does not lead to any particular response related to the conditioning situation. This stimulus will become a conditioned stimulus.

touch receptors distributed throughout the body that are responsible for the sensation of pain

learning, or change, that occurs because of the repetition of a single stimulus over time.

sexual orientations that are not heterosexual.

the main neurotransmitter used by the sympathetic nervous system

a brain area near the hypothalamus that appears to be key for reinforcement and motivated behavior.

influence of an authority figure over another person

an official designation that corresponds to a BMI of 30 or above

the realization that objects exist even when you cannot see them

Any event that is noticed or detected through the senses; observations are what scientists try to organize and explain.

learning that occurs through watching others' behavior

persistent, uncontrollable, inappropriate thoughts, impulses, or images

a disorder marked by uncontrollable, inappropriate thoughts, impulses, or images that lead to anxiety (obsessions) and repetitive action or thought that is intended to reduce the anxiety (compulsions)

the lobes of the cortex in the back; they contain the primary visual cortex

our sense of smell

a brain area directly above olfaction receptors responsible for processing smells

language stage that happens around the time an infant turns one-year-old; infants can produce one word at a time

type of associative learning in which a behavior comes to be associated with its consequences

A definition of a concept that specifies how it will be measured in a research project.

the area of the retina where the neural signals leave the eye and are sent to the brain

phase of sexual response during which genitals contract rhythmically.

structures in the inner ear that sense tiling and acceleration of the head in different direction

social group to which a person does not identify as a member

the area connected to the hammer, anvil, and stirrup; it passes vibrations on to the inner ear

female sex glands; they produce hormones and eggs.

A general tendency for people to be more confident in their judgments than they should. It results from several specific biases, including hindsight bias, confirmation bias, and false consensus.

A type of oversimplification in which some fact or research finding true of one small group is incorrectly generalized to a larger or different group.

A type of oversimplification in which some fact or research finding true of one small group is incorrectly generalized to a larger or different group.

an official designation that corresponds to a BMI above 25

 a hormone that is released in response to stress and tends to lead to nurturing and affiliative behavior

a sudden dramatic increase in anxiety, marked by intense fear and (commonly) a feeling of doom or dread

an anxiety disorder marked repeated unexplained panic attacks

another term for REM sleep, so named because of the apparent contradiction between high levels of activity inside the body and a motionless bod

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body down.

the lobes of the cortex directly behind the frontal lobes; they contain the primary sensory cortex

reinforcement that occurs only after some appearances of a behavior. It leads to slow learning; when the reinforcement stops, extinction is slow

love that is marked by intense feelings and physical desire.

the processes through which we interpret or recognize neural signals from sensation

the parts of the nervous system that run throughout the body (everything except the brain and spinal cord)

a persuasion strategy that relies on irrelevant cues to persuade.

parenting style characterized by few demands and rules for children

the collection of dispositions that a person brings to any situation

a category of psychological disorders marked by inflexible patterns of behavior or thinking that reflect deviations from a culture’s expectations and lead to impairment or distress

tendencies that predispose people to act consistently over time and across situations

an attempt to influence people when you have no authority over them

an observed trait, which might result from different specific gene version combinations

an anxiety disorder marked by an intense fear or anxiety associated with a specific object or situation

the discredited belief that people’s traits and abilities could be determined by examining bumps on their skulls.

the semi-soft, cartilage-filled structure that is part of the outer ear

a gland responsible for controlling vital body functions. 

A type of oversimplification in which a potential explanations are presented as a strict either/or possibility. As a result, a phenomenon is incorrectly explained as resulting from one cause to the exclusion of all others.

a theory that states that high frequency sound waves lead to stronger vibrations in the section of the cochlea nearer to the oval window, while lower frequency waves lead to stronger vibrations in the farther out sections

the structure at the attachment point between the fetus and the mother’s uterus; it allows the exchange of nutrients and waste products and acts as a filter to keep out harmful substances.

globs of protein that surround the brain’s neurons in Alzheimer’s disease patients

the ability of the brain to reorganize itself as a result of learning or in response to damage

phase of sexual response before orgasm, when breathing, pulse rate and blood pressure increase.

the principle by which the id operates; it seeks to maximize pleasure by immediate satisfaction of its impulses.

a bulging area above the medulla; transfers information between the brain and spinal cord

a research-based psychological approach that explores how we can enhance positive emotions, such as happiness and optimism.

in operant conditioning, punishment that occurs because of the addition of something bad

in operant conditioning, reinforcement that occurs because of the addition of something good (i.e.that is, a reward)

symptoms that represent the presence of extra and inappropriate behaviors

a brain imaging technique that allows researchers to track  glucose consumption in the brain

sets of ideal, expected, and feared “selves” that we might become in the future

the feeling of regret or unhappiness that may occur after we make an important decision

a disorder marked by intense anxiety, nightmares, and avoiding reminders of an extremely stressful event

the part of the personality consisting of thoughts that are not conscious but can be brought into consciousness

a technique of estimating validity of an aptitude test by comparing test takers’ actual performance on some task to the performance that was predicted by the test

a tendency to possess a certain trait. Genes are said to predispose individuals to develop certain traits in the right environmental conditions.

an area in the frontal lobes involved in judgment and reasoning, and in working memory

a surgery in which the frontal lobes are separated from the rest of the brain; the surgery was performed during the 1940’s and 1950’s in the US to try to calm psychiatric patients.

a feeling or evaluation of a person who has been stereotyped.

Piaget's second stage of cognitive development; the child begins to think symbolically

the area of the temporal lobes responsible for the processing of sounds

an area in the frontal lobes responsible for directing movement of the body

a reinforcer that meets some biological need

the section of the parietal lobes responsible for our sense of touch throughout the body

the maturation of the reproductive organs

the area of the occipital lobes involved in the early processing of visual information

the activation of some concept or idea from memory by some related concept

a situation in which we are in an initial state, have a desired goal state, and there is a number of possible intermediate states (i.e., there is no obvious way to get from the initial to the goal state)

noticing, comprehending and forming a mental conception of a problem

a shortcut strategy that we use to solve problems. Although they are easy to use, they do not guarantee correct judgments and solutions

a coping strategy that focuses on tackling the problem head on and trying to solve it

memory for skills and procedures

a group of hormones that play a role in female traits and reproductive activity

a psychological test that is purported to reveal aspects of an individual’s personality by the way he or she interprets some ambiguous stimulus

a system with receptors throughout the body that keep track of the body’s position and movement

research study that is similar to a longitudinal study in which participants are chosen before the study begins.

a Gestalt principle that says that objects that are close to one another will be grouped together

a type of psychotherapy in which the therapist helps the client uncover and resolve hidden conflicts from the past

the science of behavior and mental processes

the stages through which children pass to develop their ego and superego.

the period during which an individual develops from childhood to sexual maturity.

in operant conditioning, a consequence of behavior that makes it less likely that the organism will repeat the behavior in the future

the hole in the center of the eye that allows light to enter and reach the retina

The division of participants into experimental and control groups so that each person has an equal chance of being in either group. It ensures that the two groups are equivalent.

A sample for which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

a theory that explains how groups who compete for the same resources will feel prejudice toward each other.

a theory that explains how groups who compete for the same resources will feel prejudice toward each other.

the principle by which the ego operates; it seeks to achieve long-term happiness by realizing that reality dictates that we do not act on some of our impulses.

the sections on cell bodies and dendrites where neurotransmitters land, thus completing the transmission of a signal from one neuron to another

the gene version that codes the trait that the offspring will not inherit when the parents contribute different versions

the interactions between personal factors, behavior, and the environment in the formation of people’s personalities.

transforming information to be encoded into a different format

power that comes from subordinates looking to the leader as a role model

a programmed behavior that newborns can do when they are born.

period of time after orgasm in men during which they cannot have another erection or orgasm.

the basic strategy that people use to encode information from working memory into long term memory

in operant conditioning, a consequence of behavior that makes it more likely that the organism will repeat the behavior in the future

negative feelings that develop when members of a society believe that others have more and that this this unequal distribution is not justified

the consistency of a test

religious commitment

a couple’s attempts to maintain positive behaviors, such as smiling or using humor, while they were discussing conflicts.

The process of repeating a scientific research study. Replication applies both to methods and the results of a study.

A sample that resembles that population from which it is drawn.

phase of sexual response during which the body returns to normal.

a reaction to something that takes place in the environment (a stimulus)

the voltage of a neuron when it is at rest; it results from positive ions outside and negative ions inside the neuron

an area stretched inside the medulla and pons; it is involved in attention and arousal

the surface at the back of the eye; it contains the light receptors, rods and cones

a binocular cue; the difference between the image projected to the left and right retina is a cue to how far away some object is

taking information out of memory systems

a reminder that leads to the withdrawal of information from long-term memory into working memory

research study in which adults remember experiences and thoughts from their childhood.

the process of reabsorption of neurotransmitters into axon terminal bulbs after their use in a synapse.

power that comes from the ability to offer incentives, or rewards, if subordinates follow orders

light receptors located mostly outside the center of the retina; they are responsible for night vision

a situation in which employees do not know their exact roles and job responsibilities

reflex in which an infant will turn its head toward something that strokes his or her cheek.

the idea that language people use, helps determine (not simply mirror) their thoughts.

blaming an outgroup for current economic, religious, or cultural problems

the malicious enjoyment of the misfortunes of others

a mental representation of a category

mental framework for organizing knowledge about the world and interpreting new information

a complex and severe category of psychological disorders marked by disturbed perceptions and thoughts, and bizarre behavior

A set of methods intended to justify people’s beliefs by producing evidence under tightly controlled conditions. A full definition of science also includes its five key properties: empirical, repeatable, self-correcting, reliant on rigorous observation, and objective.

tension between researchers and practitioners in psychology

the white part of the eye

a reinforcer that has the power to increase behavior because the organism learns that it is valuable

features that signal the maturation of the reproductive organs and help to distinguish men from women.

the process of focusing on one stimulus or tasks and screening out others

a class of antidepressant drugs that works by preventing the reabsorption of excess serotonin in synapses

the belief that one has the ability to perform a task or reach a goal

the degree to which you believe you “measure up” on aspects of your self-concept that you judge important

engaging in behaviors that sabotage people’s chances at success, so they can lower their expectations and protect their self-esteem

an encoding technique that encourages semantic processing by applying to-be-remembered information to yourself

the complex processes through which we change our thoughts, emotions, and actions when pursuing a goal

A sample for which the participants themselves are completely free to choose to participate. The researcher makes no attempt to control the sample or assure that it is representative.

strategies that people use to increase their self-esteem

encoding from working memory into long-term memory by paying attention to the meaning of words

the part of declarative memory that refers to one’s general store of knowledge

the processes through which we translate physical energy from the world into neural signals and send the signals to the brain for further processing

non-associative learning type in which the repetition of some stimulus over time leads to a stronger reaction to the stimulus.

Piaget's first stage of cognitive development; children learn to coordinate sensory and motor movements, and, in the process, begin to understand how the world works

the fading away and eventual disappearance of a sensation after a sense organ has received constant input over time

a very short (about one second), extremely accurate memory system that holds information long enough for an individual to pay attention to it

neurons that receive input from the outside world and send sensory information to the brain

language stage that happens around two years of age; children begin to produce two- and three-word sentences

a neurotransmitter that appears to be involved in mood, aggression, appetite, cognition, vomiting, motor function, perception, sex, and sleep, and additional processes

the chromosomes that determine your sex; there are type types, X and Y

gender to which an individual is sexually attracted and with which the individual is prone to fall in romantic love.

the process through which specific traits are passed on from parents to offspring because they helped an individual win a mate

in operant conditioning, learning a behavior by reinforcing closer and closer approximations to the final desired behavior

a mathematical model that describes the relationship between sensory thresholds and personal factors, such as motivation and fatigue

a Gestalt principle that says that objects that are similar to one another will be grouped together

a mental representation that is formed based on a person's understanding of language

an explanation of someone’s behavior that focuses on environmental or situational causes.

an explanation of someone’s behavior that focuses on environmental or situational causes.

a way of thinking in which you refrain from drawing a conclusion or changing your mind until good evidence has been provided

not getting enough sleep

habits that promote sufficient restful sleep

short bursts (about 2 seconds long) of more rapid brain waves that occur during Stage 2 sleep

an anxiety disorder marked by the fear of being judged by others or of being embarrassed in social situations

the study of how people process and interpret social information

emphasizes that all cognitive functions are dependent on interactions with others. 

a misapplication of evolutionary principles that proposed that people who were worse off economically were so because they were evolutionarily less fit

the tendency for people’s performance to improve when other people are present.

the part of our personal identity that is based on our group memberships.

rules for the behavior in a particular group

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the skeletal muscles

a memory distortion in which a person misremembers the actual source of a memory

the finding that information that is learned and practiced over a period of time (instead of all at once) is remembered better

the accuracy level of location information from a brain scanning technique.

an anxiety disorder marked by fears of particular objects or situations

in classical conditioning, the reappearance of a formerly extinct conditioned response after a delay

A measure of variability calculated as the square root of the variance of a distribution.

comparing a test taker’s score to the scores from a pre-tested group

The error of judging probabilities or likelihoods without collecting sufficient data.

A judgment that a specific research result is unlikely to occur by chance alone, which allows a researcher to conclude that some observed finding is a reliable one.

Mathematical techniques that researchers use to summarize information and draw conclusions about their research.

general purpose, immature neurons that have the capacity to develop into any specific type of neuron

a set of beliefs about an individual person derived from his or her membership in a category.

a mark of disgrace or infamy or a bad or objectionable characteristic

an event or occurrence that takes place in the environment and leads to a response in an individual

in classical conditioning, a situation in which an organism learns to not have a conditioned response in the presence of stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, a situation in which an organism has a conditioned response in the presence of stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus

keeping memories in the brain for future use

an individual’s physical and emotional arousal in response to a threatening event or situation

reframing part of the stress response to change its meaning

commonly known as the “fight or flight response.” The physiological response that results in increased heart rate and blood pressure, diverted blood flow from body systems not needed to face the danger, and increased blood flow to the large muscles of the arms and legs.

an environmental threat or challenge

a loss of blood flow to an area of the brain as a result of the blockage or bursting of a blood vessel. The brain areas die from lack of oxygen, and the consequence is brain damage and some loss of abilities.

Robert Sternberg’s characterization of intelligence as three separate abilities that allow an individual to succeed in the world.

an individual’s attempt at suicide following the suicide of a close friend or a celebrity

recurrent thoughts of death or suicide

the part of the personality that represents our inner ideals about the proper behavior.

an area in the midbrain that plays a key role in integrating the inputs from the different senses into a single coherent perception

a tiny section of the hypothalamus that could be considered our biological clock

A research method in which a researcher asks questions to a sample of individuals.

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body.

the area between two adjacent neurons, where neural communication occurs

the brain’s ability to change its structure through tiny changes in the surfaces of neurons or in their ability to produce and release neurotransmitters

the formation of new synapses between neurons.

a behavior therapy in which a client learns to relax while imagining increasingly frightening situations related to his or her phobia

twisted protein fibers inside the brain’s neurons in Alzheimer’s disease patients

moving back-and-forth rapidly between tasks

collections of taste receptors located throughout the tongue

rudimentary sentences that include only necessary words; usually two to three words in length

biologically-based differences in a person’s emotional and motor reactions to new stimuli, and tendencies regarding self-regulation

the lobes of the cortex on the sides; they contain the primary auditory cortex

the accuracy level of timing information from a brain scanning technique.

a perceptual principle that says that objects that appear at the same time tend to be grouped together

the name given to the stress response that helps the individual cope by nurturing others and seeking social support

a substance that can harm a developing fetus.

the end section of axon branches, from where neurotransmitters are released

a technique for measuring reliability by examining the similarity of scores when the same individuals take a test multiple times

male sex glands; they produce hormones and sperm.

a report on the quality or effectiveness of some treatment, book, or product by an actual user

an oval shaped forebrain structure that routes sensory information to other parts of the brain

A statement or set of statements that explain and organize observations and generate hypotheses.

the realization that other people have thoughts, beliefs, desires, etc. that guide their behavior

slower and less regular brain waves associated with Stage 1 / NREM 1 sleep

perceptual processing that leads to recognition by beginning with the brain, which directs (via expectation and context effects) how recognition proceeds

the degree to which training carries over to other situations

in psychodynamic therapy, the process in which a client transfers feelings harbored about a person from the past to the therapist

leadership that encourages followers set aside their personal goals and adopt the goals of the organization as their own

denotes a person whose gender identity does not match their biological sex

a theory that describes how people progress through five separate stages on the road to successful behavior change

an ancient “treatment” for psychological disorders that involved drilling into the skull to release evil spirits

Robert Sternberg’s theory that love involves passion, commitment, and emotional intimacy

a method in behavior genetics in which identical twins, fraternal twins, and non-twin siblings are compared in order to assess heritability of a trait

the eardrum; it vibrates at the same rate as air molecules hitting it, which begins the process of translating the energy into neural signals for sounds

fast, automatic, and emotional thinking

slow, effortful, and logical thinking

In classical conditioning, an organism’s automatic (unlearned) reaction to an unconditioned stimulus

In classical conditioning, the environmental event that leads to an automatic (unlearned) response

the part of the personality consisting of thoughts that are not conscious and cannot be brought into consciousness

aspects of emotions that are common across all humans because of our shared biology.

the overestimation of the likelihood of desirable events or outcomes and the underestimation of the likelihood of undesirable events or outcomes

whether a test measures what it is intended to measure

A general characteristic of an individual that can take on a number of specific values.

A measure of variability composed of the average squared difference of each individual score from the mean in a distribution.

the storage sites for neurotransmitters in the axon, before they are released

extreme aggression with the goal to seriously injure or kill another living being.

a behavior therapy related to systematic desensitization in which a client interacts with feared situations in a computer-generated environment

our ability to see fine details

a perceptual law that states that the difference threshold for a stimulus is related to the size of the comparison stimulus

an area in the left temporal lobe important for speech production along with Broca's area in the frontal lobe

a short-term memory storage system that holds information in consciousness for immediate use or to transfer it into long long-term memory

the level of skills that a child can perform while being helped by someone else

the cell that results when an egg is fertilized by a sperm cell