Chapter 9 – Working Together for Racial Justice and Inclusion

Learn how to understand people’s cultures, promote engagement with others, and build strong, diverse communities.

 

 

Photo of young people holding a globe

WHAT IS CULTURE?

As community builders, understanding culture is our business. No matter where you live, you are working with and establishing relationships with people–people who all have cultures.

What is culture? Here is one viewpoint.

“Culture” refers to a group or community which shares common experiences that shape the way its members understand the world. It includes groups that we are born into, such as race, national origin, gender, class, or religion. It can also include a group we join or become part of. For example, it is possible to acquire a new culture by moving to a new country or region, by a change in our economic status, or by becoming disabled. When we think of culture this broadly we realize we all belong to many cultures at once.

Do you agree? How might this apply to you?

WHY IS CULTURE IMPORTANT?

Culture is a strong part of people’s lives. It influences their views, their values, their humor, their hopes, their loyalties, and their worries and fears. So when you are working with people and building relationships with them, it helps to have some perspective and understanding of their cultures.

But as we explore culture, it’s also important to remember how much we have in common. People see the world very differently, but they know what it is like to wake up in the morning and look forward to the adventures that of the day. We are all human beings. We all love deeply, want to learn, have hopes and dreams, and have experienced pain and fear.

At the same time, we can’t pretend our cultures and differences don’t matter. We can’t gloss over differences and pretend they don’t exist, wishing we could all be alike, and we can’t pretend that discrimination doesn’t exist.

This chapter will give you practical information about how to understand culture, establish relationships with people from cultures different from your own, act as an ally against racism and other forms of discrimination, create organizations in which diverse groups can work together, overcome internalized oppression, and build strong and diverse communities.

This section is an introduction to understanding culture, and will focus on:

  • What culture is
  • The importance of understanding culture in community building
  • Envisioning your cultural community
  • How to get started in building communities that encourage diversity.

But first, it is important to remember that everyone has an important viewpoint and role to play when is comes to culture. You don’t have to be an expert to build relationships with people different from yourself; you don’t have to have a degree to learn to become sensitive to cultural issues; and you don’t have to be a social worker to know how culture has affected your life.

WHY IS UNDERSTANDING CULTURE IMPORTANT IF WE ARE COMMUNITY BUILDERS?

The world is becoming increasingly diverse and includes people of many religions, languages, economic groups, and other cultural groups.

It is becoming clear that in order to build communities that are successful at improving conditions and resolving problems, we need to understand and appreciate many cultures, establish relationships with people from cultures other than our own, and build strong alliances with different cultural groups. Additionally, we need to bring non-mainstream groups into the center of civic activity. Why?

  • In order to build communities that are powerful enough to attain significant change, we need large numbers of people working together. If cultural groups join forces, they will be more effective in reaching common goals, than if each group operates in isolation.
  • Each cultural groups has unique strengths and perspectives that the larger community can benefit from. We need a wide range of ideas, customs, and wisdom to solve problems and enrich community life. Bringing non-mainstream groups into the center of civic activity can provide fresh perspectives and shed new light on tough problems.
  • Understanding cultures will help us overcome and prevent racial and ethnic divisions. Racial and ethnic divisions result in misunderstandings, loss of opportunities, and sometimes violence. Racial and ethnic conflicts drain communities of financial and human resources; they distract cultural groups from resolving the key issues they have in common.
  • People from different cultures have to be included in decision-making processes in order for programs or policies to be effective. The people affected by a decision have to be involved in formulating solutions–it’s a basic democratic principle. Without the input and support of all the groups involved, decision-making, implementation, and follow through are much less likely to occur.
  • An appreciation of cultural diversity goes hand-in-hand with a just and equitable society. For example, research has shown that when students’ cultures are understood and appreciated by teachers, the students do better in school. Students feel more accepted, they feel part of the school community, they work harder to achieve, and they are more successful in school.
  • If we do not learn about the influences that cultural groups have had on our mainstream history and culture, we are all missing out on an accurate view of our society and our communities.

As you think about diversity, it may be helpful to envision the kind of cultural community you want to build. In order to set some goals related to building relationships between cultures, resolving differences, or building a diverse coalition, it helps to have a vision of the kind of cultural community you hope for.

WHAT KIND OF CULTURAL COMMUNITY DO YOU ENVISION?

CAN YOU IMAGINE THE KIND OF CULTURAL COMMUNITY YOU WANT TO LIVE OR WORK IN?

People have very different views of what a multicultural society or community should be like or could be like. In the past few decades there has been a lot of discussion about what it means to live and work together in a society that is diverse as ours. People struggle with different visions of a fair, equitable, moral, and harmonious society.

  • How will the world be unified as a cohesive whole, if people separate into many different cultural groups?
  • In order to be a part of that dream, must I assimilate?
  • Why does racism persist in places that are committed to equality and liberty?
  • How can I protect my children from the harmful influences in the larger culture? How can I instill my children with the moral values of my own religion or culture, but still expose them to a variety of views?
  • Are there structural problems in our government or economic system that serve to divide cultural groups? How can they be changed?
  • Should I put my community building and civic energies into my own cultural community, rather than the mainstream culture? Where can I have the biggest influence?
  • Can oppression be stopped by legislation, or does each person have to overcome their individual prejudice, or both?
  • Why do immigrants have to hold onto their own cultures and languages?
  • If my group is excluded, what can I do?
  • How do I protect my children from being targeted by racism or sexism other forms of discrimination if I live in a diverse society? Shall I send them to culturally or racially specific school, or a female-only school, or another appropriate school?
  • If each person overcame their own prejudices, would all the divisions disappear?
  • How do I overcome my prejudices?
  • Is prejudice a thing of the past?
  • Why can’t we all just get along?

What do you think about these questions? Which issues do you struggle with? What other issues are important to you or your cultural group?

As you envision the kind of diverse community, you and your neighbors may want to consider these kinds of questions. These are some of the real and tough questions that people grapple with on a daily basis. These questions point to some of the tensions that arise as we try to build harmonious, active, and diverse communities in a country as a complex as ours. There are no easy answers; we are all learning as we go.

So, what kind of community do you envision for yourself? How will diversity be approached in your community? If you could have your ideal community right now what would it look like? If you can’t have your ideal community right now, what will be the next steps you will take in building the kind of cultural community you want?

Here are some questions that may help you think about your community:

  • Who lives in your community right now?
  • What kinds of diversity already exists?
  • What kinds of relationships are established between cultural groups?
  • Are the different cultural groups well organized?
  • What kind of struggles between cultures exist?
  • What kind of struggles within cultural groups exist?
  • Are these struggles openly recognized and talked about?
  • Are there efforts to build alliances and coalitions between groups?
  • What issues do different cultural groups have in common?

These are some of the questions that can get you thinking about your how to build the kind of community you hope for. What other issues do you think are important to consider? What are your next steps?

So, you may ask, “How do we get started?” Here are some ideas that will help you set the stage for creating your vision of a diverse organization or community.

HELPFUL TIPS TO START BUILDING A DIVERSE COMMUNITY

In the book, Healing into Action, authors Cherie Brown and George Mazza list principles that, when put into practice, help create a favorable environment for building diverse communities. The following guidelines are taken from their principles:

WELCOME EVERYONE.

In order for people to commit to working on diversity, every person needs to feel that they will be included and important. Each person needs to feel welcomed in the effort to create a diverse community. And each person needs to know that their culture is important to others.

GUILT DOESN’T WORK IN FOSTERING DIVERSITY.

Blaming people as a way of motivating them is not effective. Shaming people for being in a privileged position only causes people to feel bad; it doesn’t empower them to take action to change. People are more likely to change when they are appreciated and liked, not condemned or guilt-tripped.

TREATING EVERYONE THE SAME MAY BE UNINTENTIONALLY OPPRESSIVE.

Although every person is unique, some of us have been mistreated or oppressed because we are a member of a particular group. If we ignore these present-day or historical differences, we may fail to understand the needs of those individuals. Often people are afraid that recognizing differences will divide people from each other. However, learning about cultural differences can actually bring people closer together, because it can reveal important parts of each other’s lives. It can show us how much we have in common as human beings.

PEOPLE CAN TAKE ON TOUGH ISSUES MORE READILY WHEN THE ISSUES ARE PRESENTED WITH A SPIRIT OF HOPE.

We are bombarded daily with newspapers and TV reports of doom and gloom. People have a difficult time functioning at all when they feel there is no hope for change. When you present diversity issues you can say things like, “This is an excellent opportunity to build on the strengths that this organization has,” or “There is no reason why we can’t solve this problem together.”

BUILDING A TEAM AROUND US IS THE MOST EFFECTIVE WAY OF CREATING INSTITUTIONAL AND COMMUNITY CHANGE AROUND DIVERSITY ISSUES.

You will be more effective if you have a group of people around you that works together closely. People often try to go it alone, but we can lose sight of our goals and then become discouraged when operating solo. It is important to take the time to develop strong relationships with a core of people, and then work together as a group.

RECOGNIZE AND WORK WITH THE DIVERSITY ALREADY PRESENT IN WHAT APPEAR TO BE HOMOGENOUS GROUPS.

In working to combat racism and other forms of oppression many people become discouraged when they are unable to create a diverse group. Starting by recognizing differences in religion, sexual orientation, socioeconomics, parenting, and class backgrounds will help create a climate that welcomes differences; it will also lay the groundwork for becoming more inclusive.

IN SUMMARY

We’ve talked about what diversity is, why it is important, how to begin envisioning your ideal diverse community, and how to set up an environment that fosters diversity. This is only the beginning.

In working towards your diverse organization or community there is much more to do. In the next sections we will talk about how to become aware of your own culture, build relationships with from different cultures, become allies to people discriminated against, overcome internalized oppression, build multicultural organizations and coalitions, and other topics as well.

Each of us can build the kinds of communities we dream of. In our families, organizations, institutions, and neighborhoods, we can insist that we won’t remain isolated from those who are different from ourselves. We can transform our neighborhoods, institutions, and governments into equitable, non-oppressive, and diverse communities.

Contributor
Marya Axner

Online Resources

Brown University Training Materials: Cultural Competence and Community Studies: Concepts and Practices for Cultural Competence The Northeast Education Partnership provides online access to PowerPoint training slides on topics in research ethics and cultural competence in environmental research. These have been created for professionals/students in environmental sciences, health, and policy; and community-based research. If you are interested in receiving an electronic copy of one the presentations, just download their Materials Request Form (found on the main Training Presentations page under “related files”), complete the form, and email it to NEEPethics@yahoo.com.

The Center for Culturally and Linguistically Appropriate Services collects and describes early childhood/early intervention resources and serves as point of exchange for users.

Collins, C. (2018). What is white privilege, really? Teaching Tolerance, 60 : This article explains white privilege, gives the history of white privilege, examines how white privilege differs from racism, and offers guidance on using white privilege for positive change.

Chapter 8: Respect for Diversity in the “Introduction to Community Psychology” explains cultural humility as an approach to diversity, the dimensions of diversity, the complexity of identity, and important cultural considerations.

Kagawa-Singer, M., Dressler W., George, S., and Expert Panel. The Cultural Framework for Health: An integrative approach for research and program design and evaluation.

Culture Matters is a cross-cultural training workbook developed by the Peace Corps to help new volunteers acquire the knowledge and skills to work successfully and respectfully in other cultures.

Diversity, Equity and Inclusion in Nonprofit Organizations by Sean Thomas-Breitfeld and Frances Kunreuther, from the International Encyclopedia of Civil Society.

HealthEquityGuide.org is a website with a set of strategic practices that health departments can apply to more meaningfully and comprehensively advance health equity.

“How Studying Privilege Systems Can Strengthen Compassion,” a TED talk given by Peggy McIntosh at TEDxTimberlaneSchools

Proclaiming Our Roots: Learn more about the lived experiences of Black and Indigenous folx through their digital stories.

Reframing Childhood Obesity: Cultural Insights on Nutrition, Weight, and Food Systems is a report from the Cultural Contexts of Health and Wellbeing initiative at Vanderbilt University that focuses on three key areas in which cultural insights and global examples can help improve health policy around childhood obesity by understanding how historical and structural factors frame food and weight beyond individual choice.

The International & Cross-Cultural Evaluation Topical Interest Group, an organization that is affiliated with the American Evaluation Association, provides evaluators who are interested in cross-cultural issues with opportunities for professional development.

The Multicultural Pavilion offers resources and dialogue for educators, students and activists on all aspects of multicultural education.

The National Center for Cultural Competence at Georgetown University increases the capacity of health care and mental health programs to design, implement and evaluate culturally and linguistically competent service delivery systems. Publications and web links available.

SIL International makes available “The Stranger’s Eyes,” an article that speaks to cultural sensitivity with questions that can be strong tools for discussion.

Study, Discussion and Action on Issues of Race, Racism and Inclusion – a partial list of resources utilized and prepared by Yusef Mgeni.

Organizations:

Center for Living Democracy
289 Fox Farm Rd
PO Box 8187
Brattleboro, VT 05304-8187
(802) 254-1234

National Coalition Building Institute (NCBI)
1835 K Street, N.W., Suite 715
Washington, D.C. 20006
(202) 785-9400

Re-evaluation Counseling
719 Second Avenue North
Seattle, WA 98109
(206) 284-0113

Southern Poverty Law Center
400 Washington Ave.
Montgomery, AL 36104

Print Resources

Axner, D. (1993). The Community leadership project curriculum. Pomfret, CT: Topsfield Foundation.

Banks, J. (1997). Educating citizens in a multicultural society. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Brown, C.,& Mazza, G. (1997). Healing into action. Washington, DC: National Coalition Building Institute.

DuPraw, M.,& Axner, M. (1997). Working on common cross-cultural communication challenges. In Martha McCoy, et. al., Toward a More Perfect Union in an Age of Diversity. Pomfret, CT: Topsfield Foundation, 12-16.

Ford, C. (1994). We can all get along: 50 steps you can take to end racism. New York, NY: Dell Publishing.

Kaye, G., & Wolff, T. (1995). From the ground up: A workbook on coalition building and community development. Amherst, MA: AHEC/Community Partners. (Available from Tom Wolff and Associates.)

McCoy, M.,&  et al. (1997). Toward a more perfect union in an age of diversity: A guide for building stronger communities through public dialogue. Pomfret, CT: Topsfield Foundation.

McIntosh, P. (1988). White privilege and male privilege: A personal account of coming to see correspondences through work in women’s studies. Wellesley, MA: Center for Research on Women, Wellesley College.

Murphy, Frederick. (Ed.) (2013). Community Engagement, Organization, and Development for Public Health Practice. New York: Springer.

Okihiro, G. (1994). Margins and mainstreams: Asians in American history and culture. Seattle, WA: The University of Washington Press.

Takaki, R. (1993). A different mirror: A history of multicultural America. Boston: Little, Brown and Company.

Learn how to understand cultures and build relationships with people from other cultures.

 

 

Photo of people in a circle with their hands in the middle

 

 

Relationships are powerful. Our one-to-one connections with each other are the foundation for change. And building relationships with people from different cultures, often many different cultures, is key in building diverse communities that are powerful enough to achieve significant goals.

Whether you want to make sure your children get a good education, bring quality health care into your communities, or promote economic development, there is a good chance you will need to work with people from several different racial, language, ethnic, or economic groups. And in order to work with people from different cultural groups effectively, you will need to build sturdy and caring relationships based on trust, understanding, and shared goals.

Why? Because trusting relationships are the glue that hold people together as they work on a common problem. As people work on challenging problems, they will have to hang in there together when things get hard. They will have to support each other to stay with an effort, even when it feels discouraging. People will have to resist the efforts of those who use divide-and-conquer techniques–pitting one cultural group against another.

Regardless of your racial, ethnic, religious, or socioeconomic group, you will probably need to establish relationships with people whose group you may know very little about.

Each one of us is like a hub of a wheel. Each one of us can build relationships and friendships around ourselves that provide us with the necessary strength to achieve community goals. If each person builds a network of diverse and strong relationships, we can come together and solve problems that we have in common.

In this section, we are going to talk about:

  • Becoming aware of your own culture as a first step in learning about other people’s culture.
  • Building relationships with people from many different cultures.

But first let’s talk about what culture is. Culture is a complex concept, with many different definitions. But, simply put, “culture” refers to a group or community with which we share common experiences that shape the way we understand the world. It includes groups that we are born into, such as race, national origin, class, or religion. It can also include groups we join or become part of. For example, we can acquire a new culture by moving to a new region, by a change in our economic status, or by becoming disabled. When we think of culture this broadly we realize we all belong to many cultures at once. Do you agree? How might this apply to you?

HOW DO YOU LEARN ABOUT PEOPLE’S CULTURES?

START BY BECOMING AWARE OF YOUR OWN CULTURE.

It may seem odd that in order to learn about people in other cultures, we start by becoming more aware of our own culture. But we believe this is true. Why?

If you haven’t had a chance to understand how your culture has affected you first hand, it’s more difficult to understand how it could affect anyone else or why it might be important to them. If you are comfortable talking about your own culture, then you will become better at listening to others talk about theirs. Or, if you understand how discrimination has affected you, then you may be more aware of how it has affected others.

Here are some tips on how to becoming more aware of your own culture:

WHAT IS YOUR CULTURE?

Do you have a culture? Do you have more than one? What is your cultural background?

Even if you don’t know who your ancestors are, you have a culture. Even if you are a mix of many cultures, you have one. Culture evolves and changes all the time. It came from your ancestors from many generations ago, and it comes from your family and community today.

In addition to the cultural groups we belong to, we also each have groups we identify with, such as being a parent, an athlete, an immigrant, a small business owner, or a wage worker. These kinds of groups, although not exactly the same as a culture, have similarities to cultural groups. For example, being a parent or and an immigrant may be an identity that influences how you view the world and how the world views you. Becoming aware of your different identities can help you understand what it might be like to belong to a cultural group.

Exercise:

Try listing all the cultures and identities you have: (This is just a list of suggestions to get you started. Add as many as you think describe you.)
What is your:

Religion
Nationality
Race
Sexual identity
Ethnicity
Occupation
Marital status
Age
Geographic region

 Are you:

A female
A male
Nonbinary or genderqueer
Disabled
From an urban area
From a rural area
A parent
A student

 Have you ever been:

In the military
Poor
In prison
Wealthy
In the middle class
In the working class

Did this help you think about your identities and cultures? How have these different cultures and identities affected your life?

HOW DO YOU BUILD RELATIONSHIPS WITH PEOPLE FROM OTHER CULTURES?

There are many ways that people can learn about other people’s cultures and build relationships at the same time. Here are some steps you can take. They are first listed, and then elaborated upon one at a time.

  • Make a conscious decision to establish friendships with people from other cultures.
  • Put yourself in situations where you will meet people of other cultures.
  • Examine your biases about people from other cultures.
  • Ask people questions about their cultures, customs, and views.
  • Read about other people’s culture’s and histories
  • Listen to people tell their stories
  • Notice differences in communication styles and values; don’t assume that the majority’s way is the right way
  • Risk making mistakes
  • Learn to be an ally.

Make a conscious decision to establish friendships with people from other cultures

Making a decision is the first step. In order to build relationships with people different from yourself, you have to make a concerted effort to do so. There are societal forces that serve to separate us from each other. People from different economic groups, religions, ethnic groups, and races are often isolated from each other in schools, jobs, and neighborhoods. So, if we want things to be different, we need to take active steps to make them different.

You can join a sports team or club, become active in an organization, choose a job, or move to a neighborhood that puts you in contact with people of cultures different than your own. Also, you may want to take a few minutes to notice the diversity that is presently nearby. If you think about the people you see and interact with every day, you may become more aware of the cultural differences that are around you.

Once you have made the decision to make friends with people different from yourself, you can go ahead and make friends with them in much the same way as with anyone else. You may need to take more time, and you may need to be more persistent. You may need to reach out and take the initiative more than you are used to. People who have been mistreated by society may take more time to trust you than people who haven’t. Don’t let people discourage you. There are good reasons why people have built up defenses, but it is not impossible to overcome them and make a connection. The effort is totally worth it.

Put yourself in situations where you will meet people of other cultures; especially if you haven’t had the experience of being a minority, take the risk.

One of the first and most important steps is to show up in places where you will meet people of cultures other than your own. Go to meetings and celebrations of groups whose members you want to get to know. Or hang out in restaurants and other gathering places that different cultural groups go. You may feel embarrassed or shy at first, but your efforts will pay off. People of a cultural group will notice if you take the risk of coming to one of their events. If it is difficult for you to be the only person like yourself attending, you can bring a buddy with you and support each other in making friends. At these events, it is important to participate, but make sure you do not become the center of the event in order to lift up the voices and actions of the people leading the event.

Examine your biases about people from other cultures.

We all carry misinformation and stereotypes about people in different cultures. Especially, when we are young, we acquire this information in bits and pieces from TV, from listening to people talk, and from the culture at large. We are not bad people because we acquired this; no one requested to be misinformed. But in order to build relationships with people of different cultures, we have to become aware of the misinformation we acquired.

An excellent way to become aware of your own stereotypes is to pick groups that you generalize about and write down your opinions. Once you have, examine the thoughts that came to your mind and where you acquired them.

Another way to become aware of stereotypes is to talk about them with people who have similar cultures to your own. In such settings you can talk about the misinformation you acquired without being offensive to people from a particular group. You can get together with a friend or two and talk about how you acquired stereotypes or fears of other different people. You can answer these kinds of questions:

  • How did your parents feel about different ethnic, racial, or religious groups?
  • What did your parents communicate to you with their actions and words?
  • Were your parents friends with people from many different groups?
  • What did you learn in school about a particular group?
  • Was there a lack of information about some people?
  • Are there some people you shy away from? Why?

Ask people questions about their cultures, customs, and views

People, for the most part, want to be asked questions about their lives and their cultures. Many of us were told that asking questions was nosy; but if we are thoughtful, asking questions can help you learn about people of different cultures and help build relationships. People are usually pleasantly surprised when others show interest in their cultures. If you are sincere and you can listen, people will tell you a lot.

Read about other people’s cultures and histories

It helps to read about and learn about people’s cultures and histories. If you know something about the reality of someone’s life and history, it shows that you care enough to take the time to find out about it. It also gives you background information that will make it easier to ask questions that make sense.

However, you don’t have to be an expert on someone’s culture to get to know them or to ask questions. People who are, themselves, from a culture are usually the best experts, anyway.

Don’t forget to care and show caring

It is easy to forget that the basis of any relationship is caring. Everyone wants to care and be cared about. Caring about people is what makes a relationship real. Don’t let your awkwardness around cultural differences get in the way of caring about people.

Listen to people tell their stories

If you get an opportunity to hear someone tell you her life story first hand, you can learn a lot–and build a strong relationship at the same time. Every person has an important story to tell. Each person’s story tells something about their culture.

Listening to people’s stories, we can get a fuller picture of what people’s lives are like–their feelings, their nuances, and the richness of their lives. Listening to people also helps us get through our numbness– there is a real person before us, not someone who is reduced to stereotypes in the media.

Additionally, listening to members of groups that have been discriminated against can give us a better understanding of what that experience is like. Listening gives us a picture of discrimination that is more real than what we can get from reading an article or listening to the radio.

Exercise:

You can informally ask people in your neighborhood or organization to tell you a part of their life stories as a member of a particular group. You can also incorporate this activity into a workshop or retreat for your group or organization. Have people each take five or ten minutes to talk about one piece of their life stories. If the group is large, you will probably have to divide into small groups, so everyone gets a chance to speak.

Notice differences in communication styles and values; don’t assume that the majority’s way is the right way.

We all have a tendency to assume that the way that most people do things is the acceptable, normal, or right way. As community workers, we need to learn about cultural differences in values and communication styles, and not assume that the majority way is the right way to think or behave.

Example:

You are in a group discussion. Some group members don’t speak up, while others dominate, filling all the silences. The more vocal members of the group become exasperated that others don’t talk. It also seems that the more vocal people are those that are members of the more mainstream culture, while those who are less vocal are from minority cultures.

How do we understand this? How can this be resolved?

In some cultures, people feel uncomfortable with silence, so they speak to fill the silences. In other cultures, it is customary to wait for a period of silence before speaking. If there aren’t any silences, people from those cultures may not ever speak. Also, members of some groups (women, people of low income, some racial and ethnic minorities, and others) don’t speak up because they have received messages from society at large that their contribution is not as important as others; they have gotten into the habit of deferring their thinking to the thinking of others.

When some people don’t share their thinking, we all lose out. We all need the opinions and voices of those people who have traditionally been discouraged from contributing.

In situations like the one described above, becoming impatient with people for not speaking is usually counter-productive. However, you can structure a meeting to encourage the quieter people to speak. For example, you can:

  • Have people break into pairs before discussing a topic in the larger group.
  • At certain times have each person in the circle make a comment. (People can pass if they want to.)
  • Follow a guideline that everyone speaks once, before anyone speaks twice.
  • Invite the quieter people to lead part of the meeting.
  • Talk about the problem openly in a meeting, and invite the more vocal people to try to speak less often.
  • Between meetings, ask the quieter people what would help them speak, or ask them for their ideas on how a meeting should be run.

A high school basketball team has to practice and play on many afternoons and evenings. One team member is a recent immigrant whose family requires her to attend the birthday parties of all the relatives in her extended family. The coach is angry with the parents for this requirement, because it takes his player away from the team.

How do we understand this? How can this be resolved?

Families have different values, especially when it comes to family closeness, loyalty, and responsibility. In many immigrant and ethnic families, young people are required to put their family’s needs first, before the requirements of extra-curricular activities. Young people from immigrant families who grow up in the U.S. often feel torn between the majority culture and the culture of their families; they feel pressure from each cultures to live according to its values, and they feel they have to choose between the two.

As community workers, we need to support and respect minority and immigrant families and their values. It may already be a huge concession on the part of a family to allow a teenager to participate in extracurricular activities at all. We need to make allowances for the cultural differences and try to help young people feel that they can have both worlds–instead of having to reject one set of values for another.

As community builders, it helps to develop relationships with parents. If a young person sees her parents have relationships with people from the mainstream culture, it can help her feel that their family is accepted. It supports the teen in being more connected to her family and her community–and also, both relationships are critical protective factors for drug and alcohol abuse and other dangerous behaviors. In addition, in building relationships with parents, we develop lines of communication, so when conflicts arise, they can be more easily resolved.

Risk making mistakes

As you are building relationships with people who have different cultural backgrounds than your own, you will probably make mistakes at some point. That happens. Don’t let the fear of making mistakes keep you from going ahead and building relationships.

If you say or do something that is insensitive, you can learn something from it. Ask the affected person what bothered or offended them, apologize, and then go on in building the relationship. Don’t let guilt bog you down.

Learn to be an ally

One of the best ways to help you build relationships with people of different cultures is to demonstrate that you are willing to take a stand against discrimination when it occurs. People will be much more motivated to get to know you if they see that you are willing to take risks on their behalf.

We also have to educate ourselves and keep informed so that we understand the issues that each group faces and we become involved in their struggles–instead of sitting on the sidelines and watching from a distance. Educate yourself about other cultures by doing your own research, don’t ask others to do it for you. There are many resources in this chapter to help you learn.

IN SUMMARY

Friendship is powerful. It is our connection to each other that gives meaning to our lives. Our caring for each other is often what motivates us to make change. And establishing connections with people from diverse backgrounds can be key in making significant changes in our communities.

As individuals, and in groups, we can change our communities. We can set up neighborhoods and institutions in which people commit themselves to working to form strong relationships and alliances with people of diverse cultures and backgrounds. We can establish networks and coalitions in which people are knowledgeable about each other’s struggles, and are willing to lend a hand. Together, we can do it.

Contributor
Marya Axner

Online Resources

Brown University Training Materials: Cultural Competence and Community Studies: Concepts and Practices for Cultural Competence The Northeast Education Partnership provides online access to PowerPoint training slides on topics in research ethics and cultural competence in environmental research. These have been created for professionals/students in environmental sciences, health, and policy; and community-based research. If you are interested in receiving an electronic copy of one the presentations, just download their Materials Request Form (found on the main Training Presentations page under “related files”), complete the form, and email it to NEEPethics@yahoo.com.

The Center for Culturally and Linguistically Appropriate Services collects and describes early childhood/early intervention resources and serves as point of exchange for users.

Chapter 8: Respect for Diversity in the “Introduction to Community Psychology” explains cultural humility as an approach to diversity, the dimensions of diversity, the complexity of identity, and important cultural considerations.

Culture Matters is a cross-cultural training workbook developed by the Peace Corps to help new volunteers acquire the knowledge and skills to work successfully and respectfully in other cultures.

Diverse Teams Feel Less Comfortable — and That’s Why They Perform Better from the Harvard Business Review.

Exploring Community-led Racial Healing Models to Deepen Partnerships between Community Development and Healthcare from the Build Healthy Places Network.

The International & Cross-Cultural Evaluation Topical Interest Group, an organization that is affiliated with the American Evaluation Association, provides evaluators who are interested in cross-cultural issues with opportunities for professional development.

The Multicultural Pavilion offers resources and dialogue for educators, students and activists on all aspects of multicultural education.

The National Center for Cultural Competence at Georgetown University increases the capacity of health care and mental health programs to design, implement and evaluate culturally and linguistically competent service delivery systems. Publications and web links available.

National Public Radio’s Life Kit project discusses the importance of having parents talk about social identities with their children.

SIL International makes available “The Stranger’s Eyes,” an article that speaks to cultural sensitivity with questions that can be strong tools for discussion.

Study, Discussion and Action on Issues of Race, Racism and Inclusion: a partial list of resources utilized and prepared by Yusef Mgeni.

Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack: Reflect on how your privilege allows you to walk through the world in order to better connect with others in this essay by Peggy McIntosh.

Organizations:

Center for Living Democracy
289 Fox Farm Rd
PO Box 8187
Brattleboro, VT 05304-8187
(802) 254-1234

National Coalition Building Institute (NCBI)
1835 K Street, N.W., Suite 715
Washington, D.C. 20006
(202) 785-9400

Re-evaluation Counseling
719 Second Avenue North
Seattle, WA 98109
(206) 284-0113

Southern Poverty Law Center
400 Washington Ave.
Montgomery, AL 36104

Print Resource

Axner, D. (1993). The Community leadership project curriculum. Pomfret, CT: Topsfield Foundation.

Banks, J. (1997). Educating citizens in a multicultural society. New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Brown, C.,& Mazza, G. (1997). Healing into action. Washington, DC: National Coalition Building Institute.

DuPraw, M.,& Axner, M. (1997). Working on common cross-cultural communication challenges. In Martha McCoy, et. al., Toward a More Perfect Union in an Age of Diversity. Pomfret, CT: Topsfield Foundation, 12-16.

Ford, C. (1994). We can all get along: 50 steps you can take to end racism. New York, NY: Dell Publishing.

Kaye, G., & Wolff, T. (1995). From the ground up: A workbook on coalition building and community development. Amherst, MA: AHEC/Community Partners. (Available from Tom Wolff and Associates.)

McCoy, M.,&  et al. (1997). Toward a more perfect union in an age of diversity: A guide for building stronger communities through public dialogue. Pomfret, CT: Topsfield Foundation.

McIntosh, P. (1988). White privilege and male privilege: A personal account of coming to see correspondences through work in women’s studies. Wellesley, MA: Center for Research on Women, Wellesley College.

Okihiro, G. (1994). Margins and mainstreams: Asians in American history and culture. Seattle, WA: The University of Washington Press.

Takaki, R. (1993). A different mirror: A history of multicultural America. Boston: Little, Brown and Company.

Learn how to create opportunities for people to identify common ground, respect differences, and appreciate strengths.

 

  • WHY IS IDENTIFYING SIMILARITIES, DIFFERENCES, AND ASSETS IMPORTANT?

  • HOW CAN OPPORTUNITIES TO IDENTIFY SIMILARITIES, DIFFERENCES, AND ASSETS BE CREATED IN YOUR COMMUNITY?

  • HOW DO YOU INITIATE A PROCESS TO HELP INDIVIDUALS FROM DIFFERENT GROUPS FIND COMMON GROUND AND SHARE THEIR ASSETS?

  • WHAT TYPES OF EVENTS CAN YOU COORDINATE TO CELEBRATE THE COMMUNITY’S DIVERSITY AND ASSETS?

  • WHAT ACTIVITIES CAN YOU CONDUCT TO EDUCATE PEOPLE ABOUT CONDITIONS AND FORCES THAT HELP SHAPE A GROUP’S IDENTITY AND CURRENT SITUATION?

  • WHAT ARE THE CHALLENGES THAT YOU SHOULD BE AWARE OF AND HOW CAN THE CHALLENGES BE OVERCOME?

WHY IS IDENTIFYING SIMILARITIES, DIFFERENCES, AND ASSETS IMPORTANT?

“They are always speaking in a different language. I don’t understand them. What could I possibly have in common with them?”

“We all care about our children, no matter where we come from. I don’t have a problem getting an appointment with the school principal. Why should you?”

“There is a high rate of alcohol abuse among Latino men. It’s because they like to hang out and do nothing.”

Have you heard these comments before? They typify the perceptions that people have about others because they assume that they are different or similar.

If we assume that we are different because of our culture, religion, sexual orientation, or ethnicity, we may end up perpetuating stereotypes. But if we focus only on our similarities, we risk ignoring the differences that make our groups special and that are important to us. And if we look only at what is wrong with someone else’s group based on what we think is right and wrong, we are ignoring their strengths and values. This section will provide you with guidance on how to create opportunities to help members of different ethnic and cultural groups find common ground, respect their differences, and appreciate their strengths.

Let’s consider an effort to bridge differences between African American residents and Korean merchants in a neighborhood. If the effort focuses only on helping both groups understand their cultural traditions (e.g., wedding rituals, celebration of a newborn), we leave the effort with a better understanding of why Koreans and African Americans do what they do, but knowing still that they are different. The next time we meet another Korean family, we may assume that they are typical of any Korean family and without realizing it, expect them to behave a certain way.

If the effort focuses only on helping both groups understand their similarities, then the initial gap between them may actually appear smaller. For example, Koreans and African Americans consider “family” not just to be the immediate family, but also the grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins. We leave the effort with a better understanding that Koreans and African Americans share similar values but not fully realizing that a Korean may have an easier time getting a job than an African American due to institutionalized racism.

If the effort focuses only on what is wrong with the two groups, for example, African American children are at risk because they don’t have enough male role models or Korean children are at risk because they are caught between the traditional and the American worlds, then we leave the effort with little understanding about the assets of these two groups. Consequently, we might try to force these communities into a mold that is not right for them.

  • Interact and develop trust, friendliness, warmth, and empathy
  • See what they have in common as members of the same community and as hardworking individuals who want a better life for their children
  • Reduce the myths about each other’s groups
  • Learn about the things that shape a person’s life and cause differences among groups, especially differences related to political power and socioeconomic status
  • Minimize the external influences that perpetuate stereotypes based on physical traits and other qualities

Keep in mind though that helping people to see their similarities, differences, and assets is only one step in the community building process. Unless this process is linked to actions that change the behaviors of groups of people and institutions, change will only occur at the individual level.

HOW CAN OPPORTUNITIES TO IDENTIFY SIMILARITIES, DIFFERENCES, AND ASSETS BE CREATED IN YOUR COMMUNITY?

Think of your approach as a multi-prong strategy with activities that allow people to share their similarities and to learn about the differences.

One example may be to design a discussion process to allow people to share their similarities, coordinate events that celebrate diversity, AND design a public education campaign to educate people about conditions that help shape a group’s identity and current situation.

Build on issues that you know affect everyone in the community, such as healthy children, safer streets, clean parks, elderly care, or more recreational centers. Use these issues to create a common goal toward which everyone can work.

Identify the individuals who need to be engaged from each sector of the community that you are trying to build. If you are trying to build a community that has diverse ethnic groups, be sure that each group is included. If you are trying to build a community between people with different sexual orientations, be sure to include all of them.

Keep in mind: Be very careful about how you build on existing events or programs of existing organizations. For example, in one community, the neighborhood organization had a bad reputation of being exclusive and internally conflicted. Building on an event sponsored by the neighborhood organization or inviting more than one representative from this organization could lead others to think that nothing will change. Don’t bypass this organization, because it has an important role in the community, but be explicit about its role and who the representative should be at the meeting.

On the other hand, building on an event or organization that has a positive image could give your effort more credibility. For example, ask a credible leader from a particular group to announce your effort at his/her event. This will provide you easier access to that particular group in the future and to demonstrate the blessing that your effort has received from that group.

Do your homework. Find out about events and organizations before you use them for your community building purposes.

Don’t let someone from a particular group be an after-thought and invite that person after the second meeting has occurred. That person may think that they were secondary to the rest of the participants. If a key person from a particularly important group has not yet been identified or cannot make the first meeting, it may be wise to delay the meeting.

Additionally, adding a new person after the group has already met could threaten the trust and relationship-building that the group starts to have among its members. If it is difficult for you to decline a new person because this person is critical or a current member of the group insists on bringing a friend, make sure that you take the time to ask the group permission and to orient the new person before the next meeting.

Tip:  The number of persons you invite from each group matters. You don’t want one group to dominate. If you are inviting groups that have never come together before, it may be a good idea to invite two representatives from each group to reduce the fear of being a lone voice.

When scheduling the first meeting or discussion, be sensitive to people’s schedules and traditions. For example, if you are trying to engage the Muslim community and it happens to be the month of Ramadan, schedule your meetings after they break their fast, or build in a break for them to say a prayer before they can eat. Once you have everyone at the first meeting, you can check future meeting schedules with them.

Pay attention to the meeting location, and make sure that it is not a location that is traditionally perceived as exclusive or representative of certain groups.

HOW DO YOU INITIATE A PROCESS TO HELP INDIVIDUALS FROM DIFFERENT GROUPS FIND COMMON GROUND AND SHARE THEIR ASSETS?

Find a phrase that appeals to all the groups in your community. For example, everyone is likely to want to have “better communities” or “a better quality of life.”

At the first meeting, build in some informal social time or structured icebreakers before “getting down to business.” For example, you could ask each person how and where they got their names. This exercise will help people learn to pronounce one another’s names correctly (e.g., names of people from India, Thailand, Vietnam, Iran, Ethiopia, etc.). It will also be rich exchange as people learn about the value and meaning behind each name.

Then select a phrase or term and ask each person to describe the meaning of the selected phrase (e.g., healthy community) to him/her. Here is a list of questions that can be used to facilitate the discussions. Not all the questions can or should be asked or answered in the first discussion, but the facilitator needs to be very strategic in developing discussion guides and agendas that build on the previous discussion.

Through these discussions, the assets of each group will become evident. For instance, a Latino resident may describe how her church is an existing resource because it coordinates activities to help Latino women develop English and other professional skills. This church and the trained women become assets for the community.

The Hope Community in Minneapolis, Minnesota has developed listening projects that bring together diverse residents in the community to “dream of what a neighborhood can be when children matter.” They have used the information gathered through such projects to develop community development strategies.

For more information contact:
Mary Keefe, Associate Director
Hope Community, Inc.
2101 Portland Avenue, South
Minneapolis, MN 55404.
Phone: 612-874-8867

Facilitation questions:

  • What does “community” mean to you? You can also use visual aids and ask the participants to draw a picture of their idea of a community. (This information will help show the participants how much they have in common in terms of their aspirations for a better place to live.)
  • Where do you see yourself in the community? What role do you think you play in the community? (This information will help indicate how each person and the group they belong to contributes to the community.)
  • How does your community reflect and not reflect your idea of a community? (This information will help participants learn about each person’s perception of the community they live in, and how and why the community meets or does not meet their expectations)
  • What do you think needs to happen in order for the community to be better for you and your family? (This information will help participants learn about the changes that each person wants to see in the community.)
  • What existing cultural resources, assets, activities, or structures can you build on to make this the community you want? (This information will help identify the strengths of the community, assets of each group, and to recognize previous and current efforts to strengthen the community.)
  • What is missing in the community? Why? And what can you do individually and together to make the changes happen? (This information will help identify needs and to plan action steps that individuals and their groups can take individually and collectively.)

As one dialogue progresses and you learn about how you could improve it, you could start another dialogue with a new group of people. You could ask the participants in one dialogue to identify two other leaders or friends to join a new dialogue.

WHAT TYPES OF EVENTS CAN YOU COORDINATE TO CELEBRATE THE COMMUNITY’S DIVERSITY?

At the same time that you are carrying out a process to help individuals find common ground, you can also plan events that celebrate the community’s diversity. You could ask the individuals in the dialogues to help plan these events. These events should be open to everyone in the community. These events will also help to highlight the assets of each group in the community.

Festivals and important occasions are useful subjects for learning about and celebrating different groups’ traditions. For instance, you could put together a calendar of new year festivities that each major racial, ethnic, and cultural group in the community celebrates.

Tip: Some groups (e.g., Chinese, Muslims) use the lunar, and not the calendar year. This means that the date of their new year may fall on a different day every year based on the calendar year. Double check before you make any annual plans.

You could then work with the local public library and other public facilities (e.g., YMCA, community center, city hall) to hang decorative items and post information about the new year event, and work with the particular group to plan one activity about its traditions during its new year celebration.

Another way to celebrate the community’s diversity is to intentionally acknowledge and appreciate traditions that tend to be overshadowed by historically dominant festivities. For example, during Christmas season, plan events that also celebrate Kwanzaa and Hanukkah.

Things paired with primary reinforcers such as food can also take on reinforcing value themselves. Many groups can use the same ingredients and produce different dishes. These dishes are a form of diversity that is non-threatening and typically welcomed by everyone. One idea is to do research on a particular ingredient and then ask each group to share information and to demonstrate how it uses that ingredient.

Find out how each group celebrates, commemorates, or grieves over significant events in their history and culture. Take one common subject (e.g., birth, death, independence day, war, etc.), educate the community about the meaning and value of the related events, and then share the practices with everyone. Publicize the information and the events.

Some communities make a point of celebrating Black History month, Asian/Pacific Islander month, or Hispanic month as way to promote and appreciate different cultures. There is nothing wrong with this approach, but we must remember that appreciating different groups should be a constant practice and not just during certain times in the year. It is better to have different events for all the major groups in your community throughout the year rather than concentrate them during certain months only.

What do you currently do in your community to celebrate diversity? When do the events usually occur? How can you plan it so that the events happen on a regular basis throughout the year?

Initial questions to guide the planning of events to celebrate diversity include:

  • What are the major celebrations and events in your culture?
  • What do people in your culture do on that day/week/month?
  • What would you like to share with the rest of the community about that celebration or event?
  • Are there similar celebrations and events by the other groups in the community?

WHAT ACTIVITIES CAN YOU CONDUCT TO EDUCATE PEOPLE ABOUT CONDITIONS AND FORCES THAT HELP SHAPE A GROUP’S IDENTITY AND CURRENT SITUATION?

Activities to educate people about conditions and forces that help shape a group’s identity and current situation can be conducted in small group settings or for the community-at-large (e.g., a public education campaign). These activities should also be conducted at the same time as the dialogues to identify common ground and the events to celebrate diversity. The main purpose of these activities is to help diverse groups understand the history, oppression, and injustice that form the basis for why groups are treated differently.

ARE GROUPS TREATED DIFFERENTLY IN YOUR COMMUNITY? WHAT QUALITY OR QUALITIES SEPARATE GROUPS FROM ONE ANOTHER?

Visual cues, such as images of enslaved Black people, Chinese railroad workers, or mosques could be used to prompt discussion among a small diverse group. Members could be asked to describe what the images mean to them. Someone knowledgeable about the history of the image could be invited to share the information with the group.

Another possibility is to select a significant symbol in the community (e.g., statue of a prominent person in front of city hall, name of a school, historical buildings) and ask each person to describe what that symbol means to him or her. This is a particularly useful exercise for newcomers in a community (e.g., refugees from Laos) to learn about the history of their new residence, and for long-time residents (e.g., African Americans and European Americans who have lived in the community for generations) to have a role in welcoming the newcomers.

Public education campaigns can be a useful strategy to raise the community’s awareness about conditions that helped shape a group’s identity and current situation. In such campaigns, use research data (e.g., cite statistical evidence about the tax contributions of immigrants to the U.S. economy to dispel myths about the large number of undocumented immigrants that are benefiting from public monies) and stories from actual residents (e.g., how an immigrant in the community started a small business that is now a source of employment for local residents) to make the point.

Examples of ideas for a public education campaign include:

  • A series of articles in the local newspaper about the plight of a group of refugees who recently resettled in the community
  • A series of articles about health disparities between African Americans and European Americans and the possible reasons for the gap
  • Table tents (e.g., for restaurants) and posters that celebrate the community’s diversity
  • Planned trips to different faith institutions in the community and discussions about different religious symbols and practices
  • Planned and facilitated discussions in schools, block associations, chambers of commerce, and other community settings about topics such as institutionalized racism, homophobia, xenophobia, and other forms of discrimination

At the end of each article or in the table tents and posters, include a tear-out slip so that individuals interested in participating in your community building effort can send you their contact information. This way, you could expand the circle of people who want to do something about the growing diversity of their community and, at the same time, develop a list of potential volunteers. Postcards could be distributed at the end of discussions and field trips for the same purpose.

WHAT ARE THE CHALLENGES THAT YOU SHOULD BE AWARE OF AND HOW CAN THE CHALLENGES BE OVERCOME?

People could have had positive or negative experiences in the past with processes to get to know each other, build coalitions, or break down group barriers. For example, the Latino administrators in a school may have tried to work with Vietnamese parents in the past through a local Vietnamese organization. The attempt failed because of cultural barriers in communication style. Consequently, the two groups experienced negative feelings about each other.

Do your homework. Find out which individuals or groups have tried to work together before and what were their experiences. Interview key leaders, ask them what would encourage people to work together again or for the first time.

These group processes, particularly during discussions about power differences, could themselves create tension and conflicts. For example, a Jewish man may feel offended that he is perceived to have economic power because the stereotype of Jews is that they know how to make and save money.

The facilitator and the participants must agree on ground rules for discussion and for handling situations when someone may be offended, hurt, or angered. For example, someone can say out loud, “ouch,” or hold up an object.

Sometimes, groups tend to compare themselves based on the degree to which they have been oppressed. For example, members of the “untouchable caste” in India may feel that they have suffered oppression of the worst kind because they were discriminated against by people of their own nationality and ethnicity. African Americans may feel that there was no worse oppression than slavery.

The facilitator should call out this behavior when they see it, let the groups know that all forms of oppression are wrong. Help the groups understand that their collective effort could help reduce discrimination of all kinds and not just against one particular group.

It is difficult to link the process of getting to know one another to taking action. The strategy or process must ensure that such a link is intentionally created during the planning stage and not as an afterthought. For example, an African American leader once said to a group of funders and program managers that the African American community is tired of sitting around and talking. They know what they want and all they need is some funds to carry out their actions.

Be explicit about why you are asking people to the table, especially what is in it for them and what is the desired outcome.

There has to be adequate time, resources, knowledge, and skills to support the process. Initiating the process without ensuring enough support to complete it could create more harm than good. For example, one organization put a lot of upfront effort and resources into establishing a group to deal with the misrepresentation of immigrants in the media. This process got the group members all fired up, but by the time they developed the action steps, there was no more money to support the steps. This created a lot of frustration and increased the reluctance of this group to get involved in another effort in the future.

Take the time to develop a budget and a step-by-step action plan. This plan should be guided by the amount of resources available and reasonably projected. To implement the plan work in phases if you have to and evaluate process and affirm future actions at the end of each phase.

IN SUMMARY

Effort must be made and opportunities created to help members of different racial groups, and cultural groups to learn about, acknowledge, and respect their similarities, differences, and assets. If an effort emphasizes only one of these components the participating members will get an incomplete picture of one another and the groups they belong to. If resources are limited, you might want to consider ways to conduct a smaller-scale activity that conveys all the components, rather than a large-scale activity that emphasizes one of the components only.

Contributor
Kien Lee

Online Resources

Chapter 8: Respect for Diversity in the “Introduction to Community Psychology” explains cultural humility as an approach to diversity, the dimensions of diversity, the complexity of identity, and important cultural considerations.

Study, Discussion and Action on Issues of Race, Racism and Inclusion – a partial list of resources utilized and prepared by Yusef Mgeni.

Print Resources

Center for Living Democracy. (1997) Interracial dialogue groups across America: A directory. Brattleboro, VT: Center for Living Democracy. (For a copy please write to The Center for Living Democracy, 289 Fox Farm Road, Brattlevoro, VT 05301, call: 802-254-1234

Chavis, D., Lee, K., & Buchanan, R. (2001). Principles for intergroup projects. Gaithersburg, Maryland: Association for the Study and Development of Community.

Lee, K. (2002). Building intergroup relations after September 11. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 131-141. (A copy of the paper can be obtained by writing the author at the Association for the Study and Development of Community, 312 South Frederick Avenue, Gaithersburg, MD 20877 or at kien@capablecommunity.com.)

National Conference for Community and Justice. (2001). Building bridges with reliable information. Washington, DC: The National Conference for Community and Justice (NCCJ). (For a copy please write NCCJ- National Capital Area Region, 1815 H Street, NW, Suite 1050, Washington, DC 20006; call 202-822-6110; e-mail: nationalcapital@nccj.org)

Quiroz, J. (1995). Together in our differences. Washington, DC: The National Immigration Forum. (For information on how to obtain a copy, contact the National Immigration Forum: 200 Eye Street, NE, Suite 220, Washington, DC 2002, call: 202-544-0004.

Reichler. P, & Dredge, P. (Eds.) (1997). Governing diverse communities: A focus on race and ethnic relations. Washington, DC: National League of Cities (NLC). (For a copy please contact NLC Publications Center: P.O. Box 491, Annapolis Junction, MD 20701 or call 888-571-2939.)

Stephan, W. & Stephan, C. (2001). Improving Intergroup Relations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Organizations

Hope in the Cities National Office
Richmond, Virginia
1103 Sunset Avenue
Richmond, VA 23221
Telephone: (804) 358-1764
Fax: (804) 358-1769

Palmetto Project
P.O. Box 506
Charleston, SC 20402
Telephone: (843) 577-4122
Fax: (843)-723-0521

Study Circle Resource Center
PO Box 203
697 Pomfret Street
Pomfret, CT 06258
Phone: (860) 928.2616
Fax: (860) 928.3713

Learn how to understand people’s culture, community and leadership to enhance engagement.

 

In order to work effectively in a culturally and ethnically diverse community, a community builder needs to first understand how each racial and ethnic group in that community is organized in order to support its members. It is not uncommon to hear a community leader, a funder, a political representative, or a service provider say, “We were not able to engage that group over there because they are not organized. They have no leaders. We need to organize them first.” This statement is not always accurate; most groups have their own network of relationships and hierarchy of leaders that they tap into for mutual support. These networks or leaders may not be housed in a physical location or building that is obvious to people outside of the group. They may not even have a label or a title. There is an unspoken understanding in some groups about when and whom they should turn to among their members for advice, guidance, and blessing. Once a community builder understands the social organization of the group, it will become easier to identify the most appropriate leaders, help build bridges, and work across multiple groups in a diverse community.

What do we mean by “social organization?” Social organization refers to the network of relationships in a group and how they interconnect. This network of relationships helps members of a group stay connected to one another in order to maintain a sense of community within a group. The social organization of a group is influenced by culture and other factors.

Within the social organization of a group of people, there are leaders. Who are leaders? Leaders are individuals who have followers, a constituency, or simply a group of people whom they can influence. A community builder needs to know who the leaders are in a group in order to get support for his community building work.

In this section, you will learn more about the social organization and leadership of different cultural and ethnic groups. The material covered in this section focuses primarily on African Americans and immigrants for two reasons:

  1. Tensions tend to occur among groups that are competing for resources that are already limited and not always accessible to them; and
  2. Most of the struggles facing community builders and other individuals have been with recent immigrants whose culture, institutions, and traditions are still unfamiliar to mainstream groups.

As recent immigrant groups integrate into their new society, their social organization and leadership structures transform to become more similar to those of mainstream groups. This process could take decades and generations; all the more reason why it is important for community builders to understand the social organization and leadership structure of the new arrivals and to build on their values and strengths. While some traditional social structures may prevail, others may adapt to those of the mainstream culture.

Take a moment and think about the most recent group of newcomers to your community.
Who are their leaders? Where do their members go to for help?

Think about the group you belong to. Who are the leaders? Whom do you go to for help? How is your group organized to communicate among its members?

Obviously there are too many groups in this world to include in this section. We will try to share information about as many groups as we can. While the section may not inform you about the social organization and leadership of groups other than the ones described here, we hope it will help you understand enough about the influence of culture on social organization and leadership to ask the right questions of any group.

HOW DO CULTURE AND OTHER FACTORS AFFECT THE SOCIAL ORGANIZATION OF A COMMUNITY?

There are many definitions of culture. Culture typically refers to a set of symbols, rituals, values, and beliefs that make one group different from another. Culture is learned and shared with people who live or lived in the same social environment for a long time. Culture is captured in many, many ways — in the way members of a group greet and interact with one another, in legends and children’s stories, in the way food is prepared and used, in the way people pray, and so on. Since it is difficult and not always appropriate to change someone’s culture, how do you then use culture as a positive force to aid community building?

IN THE CHINESE COMMUNITY:

The Chinese community is the largest and the fastest growing group among Asian and Pacific Islander populations.

Keep in mind: The Chinese community forms a very heterogeneous group that includes people from mainland China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Singapore, and other parts of South East Asia. There are many dialects spoken among Chinese people and not all Chinese persons can understand one another’s dialects. Therefore, make sure you know which Chinese dialect requires translation if you have to provide translation services.

The Chinese culture places heavy emphasis on taking care of one’s family. Chinese people believe that taking care of their families is a contribution to civic welfare, because healthy families lead to a healthy society. This belief is based on Confucian values, which emphasize filial piety, or a respect for family. The concept of filial piety is instilled in Chinese children from a very young age. In other words, familial relationships form the basis for Chinese social organization and behavior.

Chinese parents place a heavy emphasis on their children and their ability to become successful. Confucian values include reaching for perfection, and perfection can be achieved through education. This is why Chinese parents invest a lot of resources in making sure that their children excel academically.

HOW DOES THIS VALUE AFFECT THE WAY CHINESE COMMUNITIES ARE ORGANIZED AND PARTICIPATE IN THEIR COMMUNITIES?

In Chinese communities in America and other countries, it is common to find local associations or huiguan formed by members from the same province or village in China and Taiwan. These local associations provide capital to help their members start businesses. They also perform charitable and social functions and provide protection for their members. These associations play a key role in community building efforts, particularly in Chinatowns. They are formed because of the Chinese emphasis on the importance of family; in China, you consider the people from the same province or village as your extended family. Therefore, in order to engage any Chinese community in a community building effort, it will be useful to identify and involve the leaders of these associations. How do you find out about huiguans? Look in the Chinese newspapers (if you don’t read Mandarin, ask someone who does); attend Chinese events and find out who sponsored them; walk around Chinatown (if there is one in your community or city) and look at the advertisements posted in grocery stores, restaurants, and shops.

Education also becomes an issue that can be used to mobilize the Chinese community. With the heavy emphasis on academic excellence, it is more likely that you can convince Chinese parents to show up for a meeting about the quality of their children’s education than for a meeting about a recreational center for the community. This means that you should look for ways to link education to the issue that you are trying to address in your community building effort.

Recent Chinese immigrants fear very much that their children or the next generation will lose touch with their culture. Hence, they do whatever they can to teach their children how to speak and write Mandarin or other Chinese dialects. This desire has led to the creation of many Chinese schools in areas that have large populations of Chinese immigrants. Sometimes, these schools have their own buildings; at other times, they are conducted on the weekends in a public school. These schools can play a critical role in reaching out to the Chinese community.

IN THE AFRICAN AMERICAN COMMUNITY:

A group’s history of oppression and survival also affects the way it is organized. The networks and organizations that form to protect the rights of their members influence the way in which members of the group organize for self-help. Enslaved Africans, who were “Christianized” by their European enslavers, used spiritual symbolism to preach freedom and to give their people hope and strength. As a result, in the African American culture, religious institutions, primarily Christian (e.g., the African Methodist Episcopal church), have functioned as mutual-aid societies, political forces, and education centers. While Christian churches are predominant among African Americans, the existence and leadership of the Nation of Islam and Muslim leaders in organizing the African American community should also be considered. Today, African American spiritual leaders are among the most influential leaders in African American communities. Therefore, in order to engage any African American community in a community building effort, it will be important to identify and involve that community’s spiritual leaders.

HOW DOES THIS VALUE AFFECT THE WAY AFRICAN AMERICAN COMMUNITIES ARE ORGANIZED AND PARTICIPATE IN THEIR COMMUNITIES?

In most African American and Black communities, it is common to find one or more churches that are the focal point for social, economic, and political activities. Spirituality, especially Christianity, provides an effective bridge among African Americans, Latinos, and European Americans.The Allied Communities of Tarrant (ACT) in Fort Worth, Texas, is an example of using spirituality to organize a coalition among leaders from these three communities. African American Baptist ministers, European American Lutheran and Disciples of Christ ministers, as well as Latino and European American Catholic priests who were connected to one another through their spiritual interests decided to work across racial lines in order to improve the quality of life for their members. With the help of the Industrial Areas Foundations (IAF), they struggled to identify their commonalties, differences — especially related to race — power, and assets. Eventually, they established ACT and took on the issue of school reform, starting with the African American community. African American church leaders came together to develop initiatives within their own churches to empower and support parents to participate in the effort.

IN THE CENTRAL AMERICAN COMMUNITY:

Many Central Americans fled the poverty and oppression in their countries to seek a more secure and better life in a new place. As one person settled in the new location and saved enough money, he or she would help family members to migrate. Because of the informal and extended family networks that are part of the Central American culture, natural support systems develop to assist new arrivals.

ASIDE FROM CULTURE, WHAT OTHER FACTORS AFFECT THE SOCIAL ORGANIZATION OF CENTRAL AMERICANS?

The close proximity of Central America to the United States (compared to other continents) plays a role in the social organization of Central Americans. Regional associations that are typically named after a town, a city, or a region in Central America emerge in the immigrants’ new geographic setting to provide support in cultural identification, security, and maintenance of connection with their families and friends who remained behind in Central America. These associations are usually affiliated with religious groups, soccer clubs, political parties, revolutionary movements, or social service organizations in Central America. Because of this form of social organization, the Salvadoran community in the United States has been able to raise a large amount of funds to assist earthquake and hurricane victims in their homeland.

HOW CAN YOU BUILD ON THESE FORMS OF SOCIAL ORGANIZATION TO ENGAGE THE CENTRAL AMERICAN COMMUNITY?

Soccer (“football”) is a favorite activity among Central Americans. It is not unusual to see adults and children from Central American countries playing soccer in public parks and school compounds. Central American countries are very proud of their national soccer teams. It’s similar to the way American football or baseball is valued in the United States, but it is more than just a game for immigrants. Soccer becomes an avenue for meeting other people from the same country or region and forming a social support network. If you are a community builder who is trying to bring various Central American groups together, try using soccer as the common ground!

The Catholic Church is also a key institution that holds members of the Central American communities together. Even in Central America, the church has played a leading role in political advocacy and organizing. In the immigrants’ new country, the church continues to play this role, in addition to providing services and social support, and maintaining a line of communication between the immigrants and their families and friends in Central America. Build on the strength and influence of the church to bring credibility to your community building effort and to reach out to Central American communities.

IN THE CARIBBEAN COMMUNITY:

Migration patterns can provide important information about a group of people. Typically, most immigrants come because they already have a relative or a friend that lives in the United States. They move in with the relatives or friends who also help them find their first job. In the Caribbean culture, there is a tradition of helping the new arrivals through rotating credit associations or saving clubs, otherwise known as susus. According to this tradition, a group of people pools their money and then loans it to someone who needs it. The borrower pays back the loan over a period of time and commits to stay in the susu until the payment is complete.

HOW CAN YOU BUILD ON THESE FORMS OF SOCIAL ORGANIZATION TO ENGAGE THE CARIBBEAN COMMUNITY?

If your community building effort focuses on economic development, then it is important for you to identify the person who manages the susu. You could ask a Caribbean business or a mutual aid society for Caribbean immigrants for the contact person.

WHAT DO ALL THESE ORGANIZATIONS AND INSTITUTIONS HAVE IN COMMON?

They support the social organization of a community. Depending on the community’s culture and the context that the community has to survive in and adapt to, they all serve different functions.

HOW DO CULTURE AND OTHER FACTORS AFFECT THE LEADERSHIP OF A COMMUNITY?

The information above showed that culture and other factors (social, economic, historical, and political) have an effect on the way a community organizes itself for self-help and support. The same can be said about leadership. There are different levels and types of leaders that support the social organization of a community. Sometimes, we make the mistake of assuming that there is only one leader in a community or that a leader has to look a certain way. Just as we respect and value the cultural diversity of communities, we have to respect and value the diversity of leadership.

WHAT QUALITIES DO YOU THINK A LEADER SHOULD HAVE?

In every ethnic or cultural group there are different individuals who are regarded as leaders by members of the group. Every leader has a place and a role in his or her community. Leaders can be categorized by type (e.g., political, religious, social), by issue (e.g., health, education, economic development), by rank (e.g., president, vice president), by place (e.g., neighborhood block, county, city, state, country), by age (e.g., elderly, youth), and so on.

Let’s use the same communities described before. In Chinese communities, the leader is typically the head of the family. If family refers to a grandfather, father, mother, sons and daughters, and grandchildren, then the leader is the grandfather. If family refers to the congregation of a church, the leader is the pastor. If family refers to a clan, the leader is the President of the clan’s association (or hui guan).

In African American communities, the leader is typically a spiritual leader. A leader can also be someone who is successful in overcoming the barriers of institutionalized racism and provide opportunities for other African Americans to be treated equally by others in the mainstream society (e.g., a business person, an educator, or an elected official).

In Central American communities, the leader is also typically a spiritual leader. It can also be the coach of a soccer team or the president of an association that links a city in Central America with one in another country.

WHAT DO ALL THESE LEADERS HAVE IN COMMON?

They provide guidance, they have influence over others, others respect them, they respond to the needs of others, and they put the welfare of others above their own. Every leader serves a specific function within the social organization of a community; however, the same type of leader in one community does not necessarily have the same role in another community. For example, a spiritual leader in a Chinese community is not regarded as a political leader, as he might be in the African American community.

WHAT DID YOU LEARN FROM THE ABOVE INFORMATION AND EXAMPLES?

How can you, the community builder, learn about the social organization of other ethnic and cultural groups?

  • Go into the process with an open mind.
  • Don’t assume that the same leader, organization, or institution serves the same function across groups.
  • Keep in mind that the social organization and leadership of a group is influenced by its culture, history, reasons for migration, geographic proximity to its homeland, economic success, intra-group tensions, and the way it fits into the political and social context of its new and surrounding society.
  • Look for the formal and informal networks.
  • Interview members of a group and ask where and whom they go to for help or when they have a problem.

Keep in mind : Among different groups, the church has different functions. For example, Korean and Chinese churches do not have strong political functions compared to Latino or African American churches. Korean churches serve their members socially by providing a structure and process for fellowship and sense of belonging, maintenance of ethnic identity and native traditions, social services, and social status. Korean pastors consider their churches as sanctuaries for their members and do not wish to burden them with messages related to political or economic issues. Instead, they focus on providing counseling and educational services to Korean families as well as clerical and lay positions for church members. Korean immigrants hold these positions in high regard.

WHAT ARE EXAMPLES OF SOCIAL NETWORKS AND ETHNIC ORGANIZATIONS THAT A COMMUNITY BUILDER CAN USE TO LEARN ABOUT THE SOCIAL ORGANIZATION OF A GROUP, TO IDENTIFY AND ENGAGE ITS LEADERS?

The section before emphasized the importance of learning about the social organization and leadership of various groups in a community so that you can tap into the appropriate resources and assets of each group. You understand that different organizations, institutions, and leaders play different roles in each group. Where do you start? How do you go about getting that knowledge?

Identify natural gathering points and traditions related to social gatherings. Tapping into natural gathering points and traditions related to social gatherings are excellent ways to identify and engage the local leaders and build community relationships. For example, in the Filipino community, tea time is a common practice due to historical European influence. Therefore, “tea meetings” in restaurants are useful for attracting community members to discuss issues and to ask how to involve them in community building efforts. Ethnic grocery stores also play a major role in distributing information to large numbers of people. These stores frequently have bulletin boards where notices are posted about all kinds of activities in that community. In addition, cultural celebrations draw large crowds and provide an effective avenue for outreach. Attend these gatherings. Find out who sponsored and organized them. Talk to the people who attend them. Ask them how they found out about the gatherings. Ask them who you should contact if you wanted more information about the gatherings.

Build on the informal networks of women. One way to engage a racial, ethnic, or cultural group is to tap into the informal networks of women. Go to places where women tend to go, such as the grocery store, the school their children attend, and the hair salon. Ask the parent coordinator at the school if you could speak to some of the mothers. It is likely that you will be able to identify one or more women who are respected by their peers and to whom everyone tells their problems.

Mujeres Unidas y Activas, a women’s organization was born when a project that brought together women from various cultures showed that the women experienced similar concerns (e.g., public health issues related to their housing conditions, domestic abuse, concern for their children’s education). After the project was completed, the women felt the need to continue to meet informally for mutual support. The network eventually became an organization that is involved in addressing issues that concern women.

Gain entry and credibility through traditional leadership structures. The approach is applicable to any group with a traditional leadership structure serving as a gatekeeper to its members. If you already understand the traditional leadership structure, use it to get support for what you are doing.

Keep in mind: Engaging the traditional leadership structures in some communities may perpetuate class, gender, or other differences. For example, the traditional leadership structure in Middle Eastern communities tends to be patriarchal. By choosing to engage the male leaders as a way to involve the larger community, you may be reinforcing that culture’s treatment of women. Community builders must always be aware of the extent to which they might encounter and be required to address cultural traditions that reinforce inequities.

At the same time, you have to be aware that by bypassing or trying to expand the traditional power structure, you may be sacrificing credibility with the community or, at the very least, losing some of the most powerful community leaders. If you think there’s a need to change some aspects of the culture in a community that is not your own, it makes much more sense to work through members of that community, rather than challenging the leaders directly. Over time, you may be able to convince them, but you have to approach them in a way that doesn’t rob them of dignity or belittle customs that have been taken for granted for generations.

Identify and work with the “bridge generation.” Young people are the ideal bridge in most communities, especially in immigrant communities, because they are raised in traditional ways but schooled in the ways of the dominant culture. Young people typically accompany their parents to the clinic, school, faith institution, and many other places. Sometimes, they translate for their non-English speaking parents. Therefore, they are likely to know where their parents go for help and who organizes the events in their community.

Ask national organizations that serve and advocate on behalf of different racial, ethnic, and cultural groups for assistance.

National organizations with special concerns have become powerful forces in linking immigrants to mainstream American institutions. Examples include the American Physicians of Indian Origin, Japanese American Citizens League, National Association of Latino Elected and Appointed Officials Education Fund, Mexican-American Legal Defense Fund, National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, and the National Asian Pacific Center on Aging. These organizations play a more extensive role than faith-based institutions, community centers, or cultural programs do in bridging immigrant traditions with mainstream American institutions and values. As a community builder, you might want to engage these organizations if your community building effort is focused on advocacy for a specific issue.

Take advantage of programs that serve large numbers of immigrants. English as a Second or Other Language classes (ESOL) and citizenship workshops often attract large numbers of immigrants, particularly recent newcomers, and provide another way to reach them. Many of these programs are conducted on weekends and evenings.Even though their primary intent is to teach new immigrants how to function biculturally, they can also become social support systems. If you want to talk to or engage large numbers of people, try the ESOL classes and citizenship workshops.

Take advantage of ethnic neighborhoods. In places like Chinatown, Koreatown, and Little India, there are many businesses and organizations that serve the needs of the residents. Go to these neighborhoods, walk through them, and look for community centers, mutual aid organizations, and other businesses that advertise programs or attract larger numbers of people.

How else can you find out more about a community?

  • Find an informant from that community and utilize his or her contacts to guide you toward other community members and leaders.
  • Spend time at places that are frequented by members of the target group and talk to people there.
  • Scan the neighborhood and/or ethnic newspaper for articles about major events and activities in a community and the organizations that sponsor them.
  • Contact the editor of the newspaper to ask his/her opinion about who the leaders are in a community.
  • Go to the ethnic grocery or convenience stores to review the announcements about events and other activities and the organizations that sponsor them.
  • Look in the phone directory or search the Internet for a list of organizations that support a communinty.

Keep in mind: Relationship building and trust building are fundamental parts of the work, especially in cultures that may be less familiar to you and/or those that have experienced racism and other forms of oppression. Getting to know people and gaining their trust takes time, patience, and flexibility.

WHAT ARE THE CHALLENGES THAT YOU SHOULD BE AWARE OF AND HOW CAN THE CHALLENGES BE OVERCOME?

  • During the relationship building and information gathering process, the informant may have expectations about being invited to be part of your community building effort. The informant may think that he or she is the most appropriate person to engage. The informant may also seize the opportunity to talk about the merits or the weaknesses of another leader in the group.You must remember NOT to make any promises to the leader about anything until you have had the opportunity to speak to as many individuals as possible and determined the most appropriate leader to involve in the effort. Also, don’t get drawn into the discussions about the merits or weaknesses of other leaders. Don’t share information about what other leaders might or might not have said already. Just listen.
  • There may be misperceptions in the community about which group you represent and who “owns” the community building effort. Such misperceptions would make it very difficult for you to build relationships in the community.You have to consider several factors before you begin to engage any of the leaders in the community. How were previous community building efforts, if any, initiated in the past? Who initiated them? Was the effort effective? If not, what happened? This knowledge would help you understand the attitudes toward you and the community building you are involved in. You might also want to consider establishing an advisory group made up of leaders from different groups to help announce and plan the effort
  • It is impossible for you, the community builder, to know everything about every group and its culture. You may be an outsider to a group.Don’t be afraid to acknowledge your ignorance. Display humility, respect the influence of each leader, and ask to be educated. You might consider starting off the conversation with a statement such as, “I know very little about your culture, but I understand that it is important to learn about it so that the community building effort I’m involved in can build on your cultural strengths and will not make assumptions about your group’s needs. I really appreciate the time you are taking to talk to me and I look forward to learning from you.”
  • When working in a diverse community that is made up of two or more racial, ethnic, or cultural groups, it is unlikely that any one community builder will have all the linguistic skills and cultural knowledge needed to relate to all the groups. At the same time, you, the community builder may be a member of one of the groups. You must be aware of the advantages and disadvantages of working with a group of people that share your culture (e.g., a Chinese community builder working in a Chinese community). You have the advantage of already knowing the culture and the language. A disadvantage is that the informant may expect you to play favoritism because you “owe” your community.

A team made up of community builders from different racial, ethnic, and cultural backgrounds would allow for the ability to relate to a wide range of experiences, to speak multiple languages, and to empathize with the variety of challenges that community leaders face. It would also help to avoid some of the expectations and misperceptions about whom you represent and who would benefit from your effort. Furthermore, working in diverse community building teams set an example for the leaders of a group and across groups.

  • There are usually several subgroups within an ethnic or cultural group that compete with each other because of differences in political affiliation, socioeconomic status, ancestry, or regional origins. As a community builder, you have to be careful not to create further tensions.Maintain a neutral perspective and don’t get drawn into discussions about other leaders. Reach out to as many types of leaders as possible. Explain that you are just in the information gathering stage; however, make note of the tensions so that you can be prepared to facilitate any potential conflicts in the future if those leaders happen to participate more extensively in the community building effort.
  • The process of building relationships and gathering information may lead to the identification of needs in one or more groups. For example, suppose that local and informal leaders in a given group require assistance in strengthening their leadership, coalition building, or cross-cultural communication skills.You could identify outside resources and expertise to help them or you could serve as a coach to the local group. This process itself can be a useful community building strategy.
Contributor
Kien Lee

Online Resources

Brown University Training Materials: Cultural Competence and Community Studies: Concepts and Practices for Cultural Competence. The Northeast Education Partnership provides online access to PowerPoint training slides on topics in research ethics and cultural competence in environmental research. These have been created for professionals/students in environmental sciences, health, and policy; and community-based research.

Chapter 8: Respect for Diversity in the “Introduction to Community Psychology” explains cultural humility as an approach to diversity, the dimensions of diversity, the complexity of identity, and important cultural considerations.

Diversity, Equity and Inclusion in Nonprofit Organizations by Sean Thomas-Breitfeld and Frances Kunreuther, from the International Encyclopedia of Civil Society.

Study, Discussion and Action on Issues of Race, Racism and Inclusion – a partial list of resources utilized and prepared by Yusef Mgeni.

 

Print Resources

Casinitz, P. (1992). Caribbean New York. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.

Cordoba, C. (1995). Organizing with Central-American immigrants in the United States. In F.Rivera & J.Erlich (Eds.), Community organizing in a diverse society (pp. 177-196). Needham Heights, MA: Simon & Schuster.

Feagin, J. & Feagin, C. (1999). Racial and ethnic relations. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Simon & Schuster.

Hamilton, N. & Chinchilla, N.S. (2001). Seeking Community In A Global City. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

Hofstede, G. (1997). Culture and organizations. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Karpathakis, A. (1999). Home society politics and immigrant political incorporations: The case of Greek immigrants in New York City. International Migration Review, 31 (4), pp. 55-78.

Lee, K. (2002). Lessons learned about civic participation among immigrants (draft). Report to the Community Foundation for the National Capital Region, Washington, DC.

Lee, P. (1995). Organizing in the Chinese-American community: Issues, strategies, and alternatives. In F.Rivera & J.Erlich (Eds.), Community organizing in a diverse society (pp. 113-142). Needham Heights, MA: Simon & Schuster.

Leonard, K. (1997). The South Asian Americans. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.

Min, P.G. (2000). The structure and social functions of Korean immigrant churches in the United States. In Zhou, M., & Gatewood, J. (eds.). Contemporary Asian American: A Multidisplinary Reader. New York: New York University Press.

Perkins, J. (Ed.). (1995). Restoring at-risk communities. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Books.

Warren, M. (2001). Dry bones ratting. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

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Advocacy In Human Services: Tools to Change Our World Copyright © 2023 by Andrea Polites and Mary Beth Mulcahy is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

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