An approach that allowed prisons and jails in the United States to operate in relative obscurity because the courts believed that correctional administrators were better equipped than the judicial system to govern the operation of prisons and jails.

An international association established in 1963 to foster professional and scholarly activities in the field of criminal justice. ACJS promotes criminal justice education, research, and policy analysis within the discipline of criminal justice for both educators and practitioners.

A key concept to the life course perspective and describes the ways that delinquent behaviors, once initiated, are stimulated and the processes by which the continuity, frequency, and diversity of delinquency are shaped.

Also known as Age-Graded Social Control Theory, is a criminological theory developed by Robert J. Sampson and John H. Laub. This theory focuses on the role of social bonds and life events at different stages of an individual's life in shaping their involvement in criminal behavior. It emphasizes that various life events and experiences can influence an individual's propensity to engage in criminal activities over time.

An important social movement in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Key thinkers whose ideas were the foundation for the Enlightenment were Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), John Locke (1632-1704), and Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778).

Also known as the age-crime relationship or the age-crime pattern, is a significant concept in criminology that describes the relationship between a person's age and their involvement in criminal activities. This curve illustrates the fluctuating rates of criminal behavior based on age and has been widely observed and studied in various societies and historical periods.

Describes methods and approaches that criminal justice agencies, i.e., law enforcement, courts, corrections, rely on during prevention, enforcement, and punishment activities.

A key concept to the life course perspective and describes the existence of a developmental sequence of activities that escalate or increase in seriousness over time.

Refers to the changes in criminal behavior and patterns that occur as individuals grow older. These aging effects are crucial to understanding how criminal involvement evolves over the course of a person's life.

Albert Bandura was a prominent psychologist best known for his work on social learning theory, which later evolved into the broader framework of social cognitive theory. Bandura made significant contributions to the field of psychology through his research on the processes through which individuals learn in social contexts.

An international organization whose members pursue scholarly, scientific, and professional knowledge concerning the measurement, etiology, consequences, prevention, control, and treatment of crime and delinquency.

A concept originally introduced by French sociologist Émile Durkheim, refers to a state of normlessness or a breakdown in the norms and values that guide individuals' behavior in society. In a state of anomie, there is a lack of social cohesion and regulation, leading to a sense of disconnection, confusion, and uncertainty among individuals about what is expected of them.

Refers to a psychological disorder characterized by a persistent pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others. Individuals with antisocial personality typically demonstrate a lack of empathy and remorse for their actions, along with a tendency to engage in impulsive and irresponsible behavior. This disorder is also known as antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) and is often associated with behaviors such as lying, manipulation, aggression, and a disregard for social norms and rules.

Applied criminology is a multidisciplinary field that utilizes theories, research methods, and practical knowledge to address and solve real-world problems related to crime, criminal behavior, and the criminal justice system. It involves the practical application of criminological theories and concepts to develop strategies and interventions that can prevent crime, reduce criminal behavior, and improve the functioning of the criminal justice system.

Applied criminology draws from various disciplines such as sociology, psychology, law, anthropology, and public policy. Its primary focus is on practical outcomes and the implementation of evidence-based practices to create safer communities, enhance the effectiveness of law enforcement agencies, and promote social justice.

Professionals working in applied criminology may engage in a range of activities, including conducting research to evaluate the effectiveness of crime prevention programs, analyzing crime patterns and trends, developing policies and interventions to address specific crime issues, providing expertise and guidance to law enforcement agencies, advocating for criminal justice reform, and working with communities to implement crime prevention strategies.

Overall, applied criminology aims to bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and real-world application, with the goal of reducing crime, improving the criminal justice system, and creating safer societies.

Refers to young individuals who face a higher probability of experiencing negative life outcomes due to various factors, circumstances, or behaviors that put them in vulnerable situations. These young people may be at risk of engaging in behaviors that can lead to personal, social, and academic difficulties, potentially hindering their overall development and success.

Suggests that healthy personality development in young children requires a warm, intimate, and continuous relationship with the primary caregiver. Children lacking such a relationship are more likely to engage in maladjusted behavior.

Attachment theory postulates three forms of attachment.  Secure attachment is a healthy form of attachment and develops when a child is confident that the mother figure will be responsible and available when needed.  Anxious-avoidant attachment develops when children feel rejection and develop a lack of confidence in the support and care of the parent.  Anxious-resistant attachment develops from similar experiences and results in feelings of uncertainty, causing the child to feel anxious, to become fearful of his or her environment, and to cling to potential caregivers and partners.  The latter two forms of attachment are non-secure and may lead to delinquent behavior.

Characterized by their strict and controlling parenting style. They tend to have high expectations for their children and enforce rules and discipline rigorously.

A style of parenting that is both high on responsiveness and demandingness.

Emphasizes the concept of operant behavior: behavior choices operate on the environment to produce consequences for the individual. When behavior results in rewards or desirable feedback, the behavior is reinforced and will probably become more frequent. When behavior results in punishment, the frequency of that behavior decreases. There are four conceptual categories of rewards and punishments:
1. Positive rewards
2. Negative rewards
3. Positive punishments
4. Negative punishments
Behavior theory differs from other psychological theories in that the major determinants of behavior are in the surrounding environment rather than in the individual.

The second main thrust of early psychological theorizing, built upon the concept of conditioned behavior, particularly concept of classical conditioning demonstrated by Pavlov. Researchers such as B.F. Skinner further developed the theory, which involves the use of rewards and punishments to control a person’s responses, or operant behavior. One of the earliest learning theories was Gabriel Tarde’s theory, which was based on imitation and suggestion. Albert Bandura’s social cognition theory of aggression suggests that people learn to act by observing others; observation of aggressive behavior teaches one how to behave aggressively.

A psychological theory and approach that focuses on the study of observable behaviors rather than mental processes or internal states. It emerged as a dominant school of thought in the early 20th century, particularly with the work of behaviorist pioneers such as Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson, and B.F. Skinner.

Refers to a standard or point of reference against which the performance or characteristics of something can be measured or evaluated. Benchmarks are commonly used to assess the relative performance or quality of data, processes, systems, or investments.

Also known as the Five-Factor Model (FFM), is a widely accepted and influential framework for understanding and categorizing human personality traits. It proposes that personality can be described and organized into five broad dimensions, or factors, which capture the most important and distinctive aspects of an individual's personality. These five factors are often referred to by the acronym OCEAN.

The 1954 Supreme Court case that declared racial segregation in public schools unconstitutional, overturning Plessy v. Ferguson and marking a major victory in the Civil Rights Movement.

BJS is the primary statistical agency of the Department of Justice. It is one of the thirteen principal federal statistical agencies throughout the Executive Branch, agencies whose activities are predominantly focused on the collection, compilation, processing, or analysis of information for statistical purposes.

The Campbell Collaboration is an international social science research network that produces high quality, open and policy-relevant evidence syntheses, plain language summaries and policy briefs.

This case 1990 was brought by female inmates in the Arizona Prison system. The plaintiff class alleged that the defendants are deliberately indifferent to their serious health care needs including medical, dental, and mental health care needs.

Cesare Bonesana, Marchese di Beccaria, was an Italian philosopher, criminologist, and jurist. Beccaria is best known for his influential work in the field of criminology, particularly for his groundbreaking treatise titled "On Crimes and Punishments" ("Dei delitti e delle pene" in Italian), which was first published in 1764. In "On Crimes and Punishments," Beccaria argued against the prevalent and harsh penal practices of his time and advocated for a more humane and rational approach to criminal justice. He criticized the use of torture, the death penalty, and other cruel forms of punishment that were common in Europe during the 18th century. Beccaria believed that punishment should be based on the principle of utility, aiming to deter crime and protect society while avoiding unnecessary cruelty.

Beccaria proposed that punishment should be severe enough to deter individuals from committing crimes, but it should not be excessively cruel. He argued that the certainty of punishment is more effective in deterring crime than its severity.

Beccaria emphasized the importance of equality before the law, advocating for a legal system that treats all individuals equally regardless of their social status or wealth.

Beccaria urged for quick and transparent trials, ensuring that justice is delivered promptly and that the public can trust the legal system.

Beccaria strongly opposed the use of the death penalty, arguing that it was neither effective in deterring crime nor in achieving justice.

Was a British psychiatrist and criminologist who is known for his research on the relationship between crime and intelligence. He conducted a significant study that focused on the connection between criminality and intellectual abilities.

Goring's most famous work is "The English Convict: A Statistical Study," which was published in 1913. In this extensive study, Goring examined the characteristics and backgrounds of over 3,000 prisoners in English prisons. He compared these characteristics with those of non-criminals to determine whether there was a significant difference in intelligence between the two groups.

Goring's research aimed to investigate the prevalent eugenic theories of his time, which suggested that there was a hereditary basis for criminality and that criminals were more likely to have lower intelligence. However, his study did not support these ideas. He found that there was no evidence of a direct link between criminal behavior and low intelligence. In fact, Goring's research indicated that criminals did not differ significantly from non-criminals in terms of intelligence.

This finding challenged the eugenic views of his era, which had proposed that criminality was largely inherited and associated with low intelligence. Goring's work contributed to a more nuanced understanding of the complex factors that contribute to criminal behavior, including social, environmental, and psychological factors. His research played a significant role in shifting the focus of criminology away from simplistic notions of biological determinism and toward a broader exploration of the causes of crime.

Was a major sociological movement that emerged in the early 20th century at the University of Chicago. It is recognized for its pioneering contributions to the field of sociology and its innovative research on urban social issues. Led by prominent sociologists such as Robert Park, Ernest Burgess, and Louis Wirth, the Chicago School focused on the study of urban life and social dynamics in rapidly growing cities.

Chicago School of Social Ecology also known as the Chicago School of Sociology, refers to a sociological tradition that emerged in the early 20th century at the University of Chicago. It is recognized as a prominent and influential approach within the field of sociology.

The Chicago School of Social Ecology emphasized the importance of studying social phenomena within their specific social and physical environments. Its scholars sought to understand how social structures, urban environments, and community dynamics influenced individual behavior and social interactions.

The school's researchers conducted groundbreaking studies, particularly in the areas of urban sociology and criminology, focusing on the city of Chicago as their primary laboratory. Their work explored the relationship between social disorganization, urbanization, and crime rates, as well as the impact of community structures and institutions on individual behavior.

Notable scholars associated with the Chicago School of Social Ecology include Robert E. Park, Ernest Burgess, Louis Wirth, and Clifford Shaw. Their studies often involved conducting field research, employing qualitative methods, and employing concepts such as social disorganization, urban ecology, and the concentric zone model.

The Chicago School's ideas and research methods had a profound influence on the development of sociology, criminology, and urban studies. The school's emphasis on the importance of social context and environmental factors in shaping human behavior continues to inform research in these fields today.

Refers to any form of abuse or neglect directed towards children under the age of 18 by a parent, caregiver, or another individual in a position of responsibility. Child maltreatment encompasses a range of harmful actions and omissions that can have severe and lasting consequences on a child's physical, emotional, and psychological well-being. It is a significant social issue that requires attention and intervention to protect vulnerable children.

Legislation providing civil action against individuals who violated civil rights, originally aimed to curb violence and discrimination from groups like the Ku Klux Klan.

A school of thought in criminology that emerged during the 18th century as a response to the harsh and arbitrary legal systems of that time. It is considered one of the foundational theories in the field of criminology and marks a significant departure from earlier approaches to crime and punishment.

Classical school of criminology is a theory of crime and punishment that originated in the 18th century and was developed by various Enlightenment thinkers, most notably Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham. It is considered one of the foundational theories of criminology.

The classical school of criminology is based on the idea of free will and rational choice. It posits that individuals are rational beings who weigh the potential benefits and costs of their actions before engaging in criminal behavior. According to this perspective, people choose to commit crimes when the perceived benefits outweigh the potential risks or punishments.

Key principles and concepts of the classical school of criminology include the hedonistic calculus, a focus on deterrence, an exploration and emphasis on the efficacy of punishment, and the promotion of legal equity.

The classical school of criminology had a significant impact on the development of modern criminal justice systems. Its principles have influenced the establishment of legal codes, the design of punishment systems, and the focus on deterrence in criminal justice policies. While the classical school has been criticized and supplemented by other theories over time, its emphasis on rationality, free will, and deterrence remains influential in the field of criminology.

Represent the percentage of reported crimes that result in an arrest, charge, or other form of resolution by law enforcement. Clearance rates can indicate the effectiveness of police investigations and the likelihood of holding offenders accountable.

Published a groundbreaking research paper titled "Juvenile Delinquency and Urban Areas: A Study of Rates of Delinquents in Relation to Differential Characteristics of Local Communities in American Cities." This study laid the foundation for the social disorganization theory, which sought to explain the relationship between neighborhood characteristics and crime rates.

A psychological theory that seeks to explain the development of aggressive and disruptive behaviors in individuals, particularly in the context of family interactions. It was first proposed by researchers Gerald Patterson and John Reid in the 1970s and has since been widely studied and supported by empirical evidence. According to the Coercion Model, the development of antisocial behavior is a result of a coercive cycle that occurs within family relationships.

The Coercion Model highlights the importance of early intervention and prevention strategies to disrupt the coercive cycle and promote positive parenting practices. Interventions often focus on teaching parents more effective and positive discipline techniques, improving communication skills, and fostering a supportive and nurturing family environment. By breaking the cycle of coercion, it is possible to reduce the risk of antisocial behavior development and improve the long-term outcomes for at-risk children and adolescents.

A psychological perspective that focuses on the study of mental processes, such as thinking, memory, perception, problem-solving, and decision-making. Unlike behaviorism, which emphasizes observable behaviors, cognitive theory looks at the internal mental processes that influence how people perceive and interact with the world.

In criminology studies refer to the impact of a specific group of individuals, often born during the same time, sharing common experiences or historical events that influence their criminal behavior. These cohorts may display unique patterns of criminal involvement compared to individuals from different generations, and studying cohort effects can help criminologists understand how historical, social, and cultural factors shape criminality.

In the context of sociology and criminology, refers to the shared belief and social cohesion within a community that enables its members to work together to achieve common goals and effectively address social problems, including crime and disorder. It is a concept developed by sociologists Albert Bandura and Francesca S. Yang.

Occurs infrequently, does not escalate over time, and rarely results in physical injury or psychological trauma.

The strategy of connecting released inmates, particularly those with mental health issues, to community-based services to facilitate their transition and reduce recidivism, highlighted in cases like Dunn v. Voinovich and Brad H. v. City of New York.

Also known as probation or parole, is a legal arrangement in which individuals convicted of certain crimes are allowed to serve part of their sentence under the supervision of authorities while residing in the community instead of being incarcerated in prison. It is an alternative to incarceration that aims to provide rehabilitation and reintegration into society while ensuring public safety.

A field of study within criminology that involves the systematic comparison of criminal justice systems, crime rates, and related phenomena across different countries or regions. This interdisciplinary field draws on principles from sociology, law, political science, anthropology, and other disciplines to analyze and compare various aspects of crime and criminal justice.

Researchers in comparative criminology aim to understand the similarities and differences in the patterns of crime, the effectiveness of criminal justice policies, and the social, economic, and cultural factors that may contribute to variations in criminal behavior and law enforcement practices. By examining these factors across different contexts, scholars in comparative criminology seek to identify commonalities and unique features that can inform theories and policies aimed at preventing and controlling crime.

A theoretical framework in criminology that views crime and the criminal justice system as products of social conflicts and power struggles within society. It emerged as a response to the limitations of other criminological theories, such as the consensus or functionalist perspectives, which tended to focus on social cohesion and stability. The conflict perspective, instead, emphasizes the role of inequality, social divisions, and power differentials in shaping crime, law enforcement, and criminal justice policies.

A theoretical framework in criminology that focuses on the idea of social cohesion and shared values within a society. It emphasizes the existence of a consensus among members of society regarding what is considered morally right and wrong, and how these shared values are reflected in the creation and enforcement of laws. This perspective assumes that most individuals in society agree on what constitutes criminal behavior, and the criminal justice system serves to maintain social order and protect common values.

The Consortium of Social Science Associations (COSSA) is a nonprofit advocacy organization working to promote and advance the social and behavioral sciences in federal policymaking. Headquartered in Washington, DC, COSSA serves as a united voice for organizations, institutions, communities, and stakeholders who care about a successful and vibrant social science research enterprise. COSSA’s policy experts work with a broad network of advocates to ensure sustainable federal funding for social and behavioral science research and the widespread use of our sciences in policymaking. Join our team of professional associations, scientific societies, research centers and institutes, U.S. colleges and universities, and private sector partners to help raise the profile of social and behavioral science research.

A philosophical approach to understanding the nature and meaning of social practices, such as language, law, politics, art, etc. It argues that these practices are not simply given by nature or convention, but are actively constituted by the participants who engage in them. Constitutive theory draws on the later work of Ludwig Wittgenstein, who suggested that language is not a fixed system of rules and representations, but a dynamic and creative activity that shapes our understanding of reality.

Developed by sociologist Walter C. Reckless in the 1960s, is a criminological theory that seeks to explain why some individuals are more resistant to social pressures and less likely to engage in deviant or criminal behavior despite facing external and internal pressures. The theory posits that various factors can act as buffers or containment forces, preventing individuals from succumbing to delinquent temptations.

A version of social constructionism that accepts that some underlying reality exists but argues that humans build social constructions that vary depending on the social and cultural context.

Developed by Charles R. Tittle in the 1990s. It offers an explanation of deviant and criminal behavior by examining the balance of control that individuals have over their own lives and the control they exert over others.

An emerging field within the broader discipline of criminology that focuses on the experiences and perspectives of formerly incarcerated individuals, commonly referred to as ex-convicts or ex-offenders. Unlike traditional criminology, which often analyzes crime and criminal behavior from an outsider's perspective, convict criminology seeks to integrate the insights and voices of those who have been directly impacted by the criminal justice system.

A disciplinary method that involves the use of physical force to inflict pain or discomfort as a means of correcting or controlling a person's behavior. It is often used as a form of punishment for children, students, or individuals who are perceived to have misbehaved or violated rules.

Correlation refers to a statistical measure that quantifies the relationship or association between two or more variables. It describes the extent to which changes in one variable are related to changes in another variable. Correlation does not imply causation, meaning that a correlation between two variables does not necessarily indicate that one variable causes the other to change. Correlation analysis is widely used in various fields, including statistics, social sciences, economics, and medical research. It helps researchers and analysts understand the degree and direction of association between variables, identify patterns, make predictions, and guide decision-making. However, it is important to note that correlation alone does not establish a cause-and-effect relationship between variables, as other factors or variables may be involved.

Refers to any behavior or action that is considered illegal, prohibited, or punishable by law. It involves the violation of societal norms, rules, and regulations established by the government or governing authorities. Criminal acts are generally harmful or detrimental to individuals, communities, or society as a whole and are subject to various legal consequences, such as fines, probation, imprisonment, or other forms of punishment.

Crimes can encompass a wide range of behaviors, from minor offenses like traffic violations or petty theft to more serious offenses like assault, robbery, murder, or fraud. The definition of crime may vary across jurisdictions, as different countries or states may have specific laws and statutes that determine what actions are considered criminal within their legal framework.

Crimes are typically classified into two main categories: misdemeanors and felonies. Misdemeanors are less serious offenses and are generally punishable by fines, community service, or short-term imprisonment. Felonies, on the other hand, are more severe offenses and often involve more extended periods of imprisonment or other severe penalties.

Involves the visualization of crime data on maps, allowing analysts to identify crime hotspots, patterns, and trends. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) technology is often used to map crime data, enabling law enforcement agencies to allocate resources efficiently.

Refers to the pattern of an individual's involvement in criminal behavior over time. It involves the series of criminal acts or offenses committed by a person during their lifetime. Just as a person's career typically encompasses a sequence of jobs and positions held over the course of their working life, a criminal career describes the various criminal activities a person engages in from their first criminal act to their potential cessation or desistance from criminal behavior.

Criminal Justice refers to the system of practices and institutions established by governments to maintain social order, deter and control crime, and administer justice to those who violate the law. It encompasses a broad range of processes, organizations, and individuals involved in the detection, investigation, prosecution, and punishment of criminal offenses.

The criminal justice system typically consists of three main components: (1) law enforcement, (2) courts, and (3) corrections.

A criminologist is a professional who studies the causes, consequences, prevention, and control of criminal behavior. Criminology is a multidisciplinary field that draws from various disciplines, including sociology, psychology, law, anthropology, and criminal justice. Criminologists apply scientific methods and theories to analyze and understand crime patterns, criminal behavior, and the functioning of the criminal justice system.

The work of a criminologist can vary depending on their specialization and the context in which they operate. Some common roles and responsibilities of criminologists include (1) Social Research, (2) Crime Prevention through public policy, (3) Policy Analysis, (4) Criminal Profiling, (5) Education and Advocacy, and more!

Overall, criminologists play a crucial role in understanding, analyzing, and addressing issues related to crime, criminal behavior, and the criminal justice system. Their work aims to inform policy, improve crime prevention strategies, and contribute to the development of effective and fair criminal justice practices.

A specialized program in law enforcement designed to improve the way police respond to incidents involving individuals experiencing a mental health crisis. CIT programs aim to enhance public safety, reduce the risk of violence, and ensure appropriate and compassionate handling of individuals with mental health issues.

A theoretical approach within the field of criminology that seeks to examine and challenge the social, economic, and political structures that contribute to crime, deviance, and the functioning of the criminal justice system. It emerged in the late 1960s as a response to traditional criminological perspectives that often overlooked or downplayed the underlying causes of crime and the role of power dynamics in shaping criminal behavior and social responses to it.

A sociological concept developed by the French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu in the 1970s. It refers to the non-financial social assets that individuals acquire through their socialization, education, and exposure to various cultural practices. This concept is essential for understanding how social inequality is perpetuated and how different forms of capital (economic, social, and cultural) contribute to an individual's social status and opportunities in life.

Also known as Cultural Deviance Theory, is a criminological perspective that focuses on the clash between the cultural values and norms of different groups within a society. This theory posits that criminal behavior can arise when individuals from subcultures or marginalized groups adopt norms and values that deviate from the dominant culture.

A study of the human mind and behavior in the context of human-technology interaction, particularly focusing on how digital technologies, the Internet, and virtual environments influence psychological processes, emotions, and social behaviors. This interdisciplinary field combines elements from psychology, computer science, and information technology to explore a wide range of topics, including online identity, digital communication patterns, cyberbullying, online addiction, virtual reality, and the impact of social media on mental health.

A prominent criminologist who has conducted extensive research on the empirical status of deterrence theory and the role of choice in criminological theory.

The process of replacing long-term psychiatric hospitals with community-based mental health services, which led to many mentally ill individuals transitioning to community care without sufficient support, contributing to homelessness and criminal justice involvement.

A legal standard established in Estelle v. Gamble (1976), holding that a lack of adequate medical care, including mental health treatment, can be considered "cruel and unusual punishment" under the Eighth Amendment.

Within the context of parenting, refers to the level of expectations, rules, and control that parents exert over their children's behavior and activities through supervision, disciplinary efforts, and a constant imposition of consequences for failing to meet expectations. It is one of the two main dimensions of parenting style, with the other being responsiveness.

A key concept to the life course perspective and describes a reduction in offending; that is, deceleration, specialization, and deescalation. Deceleration is a slowing down in the frequency of offending. Specialization is a slowing down in the variety of offending. Deescalation is a slowing down in the seriousness of the offenses committed.

Determinism is a philosophical concept that posits that every event or phenomenon, including human actions and choices, is causally determined by preceding events and conditions. It suggests that there is a fixed chain of cause and effect in the universe, and given the same circumstances, the same outcome will always occur.

According to determinism, free will is an illusion, and human behavior is ultimately governed by factors beyond individual control, such as genetics, environment, upbringing, and societal influences. It suggests that individuals do not have true autonomy or the ability to make choices that are independent of causal factors.

A concept in the fields of international relations and criminology that refers to the use of threats or the imposition of costs to prevent others from taking certain actions or engaging in undesirable behavior. The idea behind deterrence is to discourage potential adversaries or individuals from pursuing a course of action by making them believe that the costs or consequences of their actions will outweigh any potential benefits.

A framework integrating psychological, social, and biological factors to understand crime over a lifespan.

Refers to any behavior, belief, or characteristic that deviates from the norms, values, and expectations of a particular society or social group. In simpler terms, deviance refers to actions or attributes that are considered different, unusual, or even unacceptable within a given cultural context.

Deviance is a relative concept because what is considered deviant can vary across different cultures, societies, and historical periods. Certain behaviors or attributes that are considered normal or acceptable in one society may be seen as deviant in another. Additionally, the definition of deviance can evolve over time as societal norms and values change.

One of the most influential forms of learning theory, developed in 1939 by Edwin H. Sutherland. It suggests that criminality is learned through a process of differential association with others who communicate criminal values and advocate the commission of crimes. Sutherland suggested that all significant human behavior is learned, and that crime is not substantively different from any other form of behavior.

Combines elements of both Differential Association Theory and Social Learning Theory. This theory, developed by Ronald Akers in the 1970s, seeks to explain how individuals learn criminal behavior through interactions with others and how they are reinforced or punished for their actions.

A concept introduced by sociologists Daniel Glaser and William Glaser in the context of social learning theory. It is an extension of Edwin H. Sutherland's Differential Association Theory and emphasizes the role of identification with significant others in the process of learning deviant or criminal behavior.

A criminological perspective that builds upon the concept of strain theory and expands it to explain how individuals may turn to criminal behavior because of limited legitimate opportunities. This theory, developed by Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin in the 1960s, suggests that access to illegitimate opportunities can influence whether individuals choose conventional or deviant paths to achieve their goals.

Means to break down or divide something into its individual components, parts, or smaller units. This term is often used in various fields, including statistics, economics, data analysis, and decision-making, to gain a more detailed or granular understanding of a larger entity or dataset.

An alternative approach to the traditional criminal justice system, designed to provide certain offenders with opportunities for rehabilitation and community-based interventions instead of proceeding with formal prosecution and sentencing. The primary goal of diversion programs is to address the root causes of criminal behavior, promote rehabilitation, reduce recidivism, and prevent the unnecessary incarceration of individuals who may benefit more from treatment and support.

A validated, copyrighted, comprehensive drug and violence prevention education program for children in kindergarten through 12th grade. D.A.R.E.® represents a collaborative effort between school and law enforcement personnel. The program is nationally coordinated by D.A.R.E.® America, with input received from State and local agencies and communities.

Also known as co-occurring disorders, refers to a situation in which an individual is experiencing both a mental health disorder and a substance use disorder simultaneously. This term is commonly used in the context of mental health and addiction treatment.

In the past, mental health and substance abuse issues were often treated separately, but it was discovered that individuals with these conditions often have overlapping symptoms and need integrated treatment approaches. Dual diagnosis recognizes that both conditions can interact and exacerbate each other, leading to more complex challenges for the individual's overall well-being.

Was an American sociologist known for his work in the field of criminology and deviance. In 1967, he published a book titled "Human Deviance, Social Problems, and Social Control." This book expanded upon his earlier ideas about primary and secondary deviance, concepts he introduced in his earlier work "Social Pathology: A Systematic Approach to the Theory of Sociopathic Behavior" (1951).

Edwin Sutherland (1883-1950) was an influential American sociologist and criminologist who made significant contributions to the field of criminology. He is best known for developing the theory of differential association, which has had a lasting impact on our understanding of crime and delinquency.

One of Sutherland's most notable contributions was the development of the theory of differential association. In 1939, he published his influential book "Principles of Criminology," where he introduced this theory. The theory proposes that criminal behavior is learned through social interaction and communication with others. According to Sutherland, individuals acquire criminal attitudes, values, techniques, and motives through their associations with others who engage in criminal behavior.

Sutherland's theory challenged the prevailing views of his time, which focused primarily on individual traits and biological factors as the primary causes of crime. His differential association theory emphasized the importance of social and environmental influences on criminal behavior, highlighting the role of interpersonal relationships, peer groups, and subcultures in shaping individuals' propensity for criminality.

In addition to his work on differential association, Sutherland made significant contributions to the study of white-collar crime. He coined the term "white-collar crime" to refer to offenses committed by individuals of higher social and economic status during their occupational activities. His research and writings on this topic shed light on the prevalence and impact of corporate and financial crimes, challenging the notion that crime is solely a product of lower-class or marginalized individuals.

Edwin Sutherland's work continues to be highly influential in the field of criminology, shaping our understanding of the social and environmental factors that contribute to criminal behavior. His focus on the importance of social learning and the role of influential social groups has informed subsequent research and theories in the field.

Not as common as other forms of program evaluation in criminal justice as impact and cost are often of greater significance. Cost-benefit analysis and cost-effectiveness analysis are two basic types and used to determine whether the benefits gained from a particular program/initiative justify the cost.

Was a prominent French sociologist who is often regarded as one of the founding figures of modern sociology. His work laid the foundation for the systematic study of society and social phenomena as distinct fields of academic inquiry. Here are some key aspects of Émile Durkheim's life and contributions:

Refers to a systematic and objective investigation conducted to assess the effectiveness, efficiency, relevance, and impact of a program, policy, intervention, or project. It aims to gather evidence and information that can inform decision-making, improve program design and implementation, and ultimately contribute to better outcomes.

Evaluation research involves the use of various research methods, such as surveys, interviews, observations, and data analysis, to collect and analyze data related to the specific program or intervention under examination. The key focus is on evaluating the extent to which the program or intervention achieves its stated objectives and desired outcomes, and identifying factors that contribute to its success or failure.

The evaluation process typically includes defining clear evaluation questions, developing appropriate evaluation designs and methods, collecting, and analyzing data, interpreting findings, and providing actionable recommendations. It may also involve assessing the program's efficiency in terms of resource utilization, cost-effectiveness, and sustainability.

Evaluation research plays a crucial role in informing evidence-based decision-making, improving program effectiveness, and facilitating accountability. It is widely used in various fields, including education, healthcare, social sciences, public policy, and nonprofit organizations, to evaluate the impact and outcomes of interventions, policies, and initiatives.

An approach that requires that high-quality evaluation research form the basis of policy or practice in the field of criminology and criminal justice.

A significant part of life course researchers. Through a method of cohort analysis designs, it traces the development from birth to some predetermined age of a population whose members share common characteristics. Marvin Wolfgang’s analysis of a birth cohort in the 1960s found that a small number of chronic juvenile offenders (6% of the cohort) accounted for a disproportionately large number of juvenile arrests (52%). Lawrence Cohen and Richard Machalek’s evolutionary ecology approach attempts to explain how people acquire criminality, when and why they express it as crime, how those crimes are responded to, and how all these factors interact.

Refers to the presentation of specialized knowledge or opinions by a qualified expert during a legal proceeding, such as a trial, hearing, or legislative session. Expert witnesses are individuals, e.g., criminologists, with recognized expertise and experience in a specific field or subject matter relevant to the case at hand. They are called upon to provide their professional opinions, interpretations, or analysis to assist the court or jury in understanding complex issues or technical matters beyond the understanding of the average person.

Developed by criminologist David P. Farrington and is a prominent longitudinal study that explores the factors influencing the development of delinquent behavior from childhood to adulthood. This theory is based on extensive research that followed individuals over an extended period to understand the patterns and risk factors associated with delinquency and crime. Farrington's Delinquent Development Theory has significantly contributed to the field of criminology by providing a comprehensive understanding of the complex and dynamic nature of delinquent behavior. Its longitudinal approach and identification of key risk and protective factors have informed evidence-based practices for preventing and reducing delinquency and guiding individuals toward positive life trajectories.

A branch of criminology that examines crime, criminal behavior, and the criminal justice system through a gendered lens, with a particular focus on the experiences and perspectives of women. It emerged in the 1970s as part of the larger feminist movement, aiming to address the historical neglect of gender issues in traditional criminology and to challenge the male-centric assumptions and biases in the study of crime.

Sets of values, beliefs, and attitudes that were introduced by Walter B. Miller, an American sociologist, in his influential work "Lower-Class Culture as a Generating Milieu of Gang Delinquency" (1958). Focal concerns refer to a set of values, beliefs, and attitudes that are prevalent among lower-class individuals, particularly those in urban settings. Miller argued that these focal concerns play a significant role in shaping the behavior and social interactions of individuals in lower-class communities.

In the context of program evaluation, are assessments conducted during the development and implementation phases of a program or intervention. These evaluations are primarily focused on providing feedback, identifying strengths and weaknesses, and informing ongoing improvements to the program. Formative evaluations are an essential component of the evaluation process, as they help shape and refine the program as it evolves.

Was a prominent sociologist and criminologist known for his work in the early 20th century. While he is not particularly known for a publication in 1938, one of his significant works is "Crime and the Community" (1938). In "Crime and the Community," Tannenbaum explored the social and cultural aspects of crime and delinquency. He argued that society's reaction to criminal behavior often played a crucial role in shaping the behavior of individuals labeled as criminals.

NIBRS participating agencies that submit data on all Group A and B offenses.

Was a French sociologist, criminologist, and social psychologist. He is known for his significant contributions to the field of sociology, particularly in the areas of social theory, social psychology, and the study of social phenomena. Tarde suggested that the basis of society was imitation, and he developed a theory of behavior built upon three laws of imitation and suggestion: (1) People in close contact tend to imitate each other’s behavior, (2) Imitation moves from the top down, and (3) New acts and behaviors either reinforce or replace old ones.

An evidence-based and effective gang and violence prevention program built around school-based, law enforcement officer-instructed classroom curricula. The Program is intended as an immunization against delinquency, youth violence, and gang membership for children in the years immediately before the prime ages for introduction into gangs and delinquent behavior.

An influential American economist known for his pioneering work in the field of economics. Becker made significant contributions to various areas of economics, particularly in the areas of human capital theory, labor economics, and the economics of discrimination. Some of his most notable contributions and ideas include human capital theory, economics of discrimination, economic approaches to family and household, and rational choice theory. Gary Becker received numerous awards and honors during his lifetime, including the Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences in 1992. His work continues to be a foundation for research in economics and has had a lasting impact on the field.

A criminological theory developed by sociologist Robert Agnew in the early 1990s. GST builds upon earlier strain theories, such as the work of Robert Merton, and offers a comprehensive framework for understanding the link between strain, negative emotions, and criminal behavior.

Also known as Self-Control Theory, is a prominent criminological theory developed by Michael Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi in 1990. The theory posits that the primary cause of criminal behavior is low self-control, which is formed early in childhood and remains relatively stable throughout an individual's life.

The result of the testimony that John Howard provided to a committee of the House of Commons, Parliament passed the 1774 Gaol Act. The terms of this legislation abolished gaolers' fees and suggested ways for improving the sanitary state of prisons and the better preservation of the health of the prisoners.

Often referred to as "economic man," is a theoretical concept in economics that represents an idealized and simplified model of human behavior within economic contexts. It is not a description of how real people always behave, but rather a simplifying assumption that helps economists analyze and understand economic decision-making.

Within the context of the UCR, means that if a number of units under a single manager are burglarized and the offenses are most likely to be reported to the police by the manager rather than the individual tenants, the burglary must be reported as a single offense. Burglaries of hotels, motels, lodging houses, or other places where lodging of transients is the main purpose can present reporting problems to law enforcement.

A prominent American sociologist known for his significant contributions to the field of sociology, particularly in the areas of labeling theory and the sociology of deviance. In 1963, Becker published a groundbreaking book titled "Outsiders: Studies in the Sociology of Deviance." This book is considered one of his most influential works and had a significant impact on the field of sociology.

The HGP was an international scientific research initiative that aimed to map and sequence the entire human genome. It was one of the most significant and ambitious scientific endeavors in history, spanning several countries and involving thousands of researchers and institutions.

The primary goal of the Human Genome Project, which was officially launched in 1990, was to identify and determine the sequence of all the genes in the human genome and to analyze their functions. The human genome is the complete set of genetic information present in human DNA, and it contains all the instructions necessary for building and maintaining a human being.

A specific type of evaluation research that focuses on assessing the causal impact or effects of a program, policy, intervention, or project. It aims to determine whether and to what extent the intervention has achieved its intended outcomes, and whether any observed changes can be attributed to the intervention rather than other factors.

The primary goal of an impact evaluation is to understand the cause-and-effect relationship between the intervention and the observed outcomes. It involves comparing the outcomes of the group or individuals who received the intervention (the treatment group) with those who did not (the control group) or with a baseline measure before the intervention was implemented.

Impact evaluations employ rigorous research methods and techniques to ensure that the observed changes can be confidently attributed to the intervention. Commonly used methods include randomized controlled trials (RCTs), quasi-experimental designs, and matching techniques. These methods aim to minimize biases and confounding factors, allowing for a more accurate estimation of the intervention's impact.

The evaluation process typically involves defining clear evaluation questions, developing appropriate research designs, collecting data through surveys, interviews, observations, or other means, analyzing data using statistical or qualitative techniques, interpreting the findings, and drawing conclusions about the intervention's impact.

Impact evaluations are frequently conducted in various fields, including education, healthcare, social services, development programs, and public policy. They provide valuable evidence on the effectiveness, efficiency, scalability, and sustainability of interventions, helping policymakers, program implementers, and funders make informed decisions about allocating resources, improving program design, and maximizing desired outcomes.

Also known as systemic racism, is a form of racism that is embedded within the policies, practices, and structures of social institutions, leading to the perpetuation of racial disparities and inequalities. Unlike individual acts of racism, which involve prejudiced beliefs or discriminatory actions by individuals, institutional racism operates at a broader societal level and affects entire communities or racial/ethnic groups.

Also known as Intensive Supervision Probation (ISP), is an approach to community-based supervision of individuals who have been convicted of a crime and are serving a probation sentence. ISP aims to provide a higher level of supervision and support than traditional probation while still allowing the individuals to remain in the community instead of being incarcerated.

ISP typically involves more frequent and intensive contact between probation officers and probationers compared to standard probation. The specific components and requirements of ISP can vary depending on jurisdiction and the nature of the offense, but common features may include: (1) increased supervision, (2) enhanced surveillance, (3) treatment and support services, and (4) case management.

A concept within third-wave feminism that examines how overlapping social identities, including gender, race, and class, affect individuals’ experiences and opportunities.

Also known as domestic violence and intimate terrorism, is a pattern of abusive behavior that occurs within a romantic or intimate relationship. It involves the use of physical, emotional, psychological, sexual, or economic tactics to control and dominate one's partner. IPV can occur in both heterosexual and same-sex relationships and affects individuals of all ages, genders, and socioeconomic backgrounds.

Refers to the quality or state of being unchanging or constant in a specific context or situation. It is a concept used in various fields, including mathematics, physics, statistics, and social sciences, to describe properties, relationships, or principles that remain consistent and unaffected by certain transformations, variations, or conditions.

A way to describe the context of studying females and crime. It refers to the idea that female offenders are often overlooked or underestimated in criminological research and the criminal justice system. It suggests that female involvement in criminal activities may be less visible, less recognized, or less studied compared to male offenders.

Historically, criminology has predominantly focused on male offenders due to higher overall crime rates among men. As a result, female criminal behavior has received comparatively less attention, leading to an incomplete understanding of the factors contributing to female criminality.

Was an influential British philosopher, jurist, and social reformer. He is best known for his contributions to the fields of ethics, political philosophy, and legal theory. Bentham was a leading figure of the utilitarian movement and is often considered the father of utilitarianism.

A series of state and local laws enacted in the United States from the late 19th century through the mid-20th century. These laws enforced racial segregation and discrimination, primarily targeting African Americans and other racial minorities, particularly in the Southern states.

The term "Jim Crow" originated from a caricature of a Black man used in minstrel shows in the 19th century, which perpetuated racial stereotypes. The Jim Crow laws were a response to the Reconstruction Era (1865-1877), during which significant efforts were made to establish civil rights for African Americans following the abolition of slavery. As Reconstruction ended, Southern states began enacting laws to establish a system of racial segregation and disenfranchisement.

A pioneer in critical criminology, particularly with his work on left realism and the causes of crime.

A concept in criminal justice that refers to the idea that individuals who commit crimes should receive punishments that are commensurate with the severity of their offenses. In other words, it means that the punishment should be proportional and fair, reflecting the moral responsibility of the offender for their actions.

Conducted between 1972 and 1973, was a landmark study in the field of policing and crime prevention. The experiment aimed to evaluate the impact of different levels of police presence, specifically preventive patrol, on crime rates and public perception of safety.

The experiment was designed and implemented by researchers from the Kansas City Police Department, in collaboration with criminologists. The study divided the city into three groups: one group received traditional levels of police patrol, another group experienced greatly increased patrol, and a third group had almost no patrol presence. The experiment employed a randomized control trial design, with different areas assigned to each group.

The key findings of the Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment challenged the conventional wisdom that a high level of police presence, in the form of preventive patrol, was necessary to deter crime and enhance public safety.

Also known as Social Reaction Theory or Interactionist Perspective, is a criminological and sociological theory that focuses on how social labels and societal reactions can influence an individual's self-identity and behavior. The theory suggests that when individuals are labeled as deviant or criminal by society, it can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, where they internalize and embrace the label, resulting in increased deviant or criminal behavior.

Was an American psychologist known for his research and theory on moral development. He was a professor at Harvard University and is best known for his work in the field of developmental psychology, particularly his theory of moral development, which expanded on the ideas of Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget.

Kohlberg's theory of moral development proposed that individuals progress through distinct stages of moral reasoning as they mature. He identified six stages of moral development, which were grouped into three main levels:

Preconventional Level:
a. Stage 1: Obedience and Punishment Orientation
b. Stage 2: Individualism and Exchange

Conventional Level:
a. Stage 3: Interpersonal Relationships and "Good Boy/Girl" Orientation
b. Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order and Authority Orientation

Postconventional Level:
a. Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights
b. Stage 6: Universal Principles

Kohlberg's theory suggested that moral development is a lifelong process, and individuals may not necessarily progress through all the stages. He argued that individuals move through these stages as they encounter moral dilemmas and engage in moral reasoning.

A criminological perspective that emerged in the 1980s as a response to criticisms of both conservative and liberal approaches to crime and crime control. Left-Realists seek to address the issue of crime in a more practical and policy-oriented manner, combining a concern for social justice with a focus on the real experiences of crime and victimization in local communities.

Refers to the series of steps and procedures followed by a legislative body, such as a parliament, congress, or legislature, to propose, debate, amend, and enact laws. It involves the development, consideration, and approval of legislation, including bills and resolutions, that govern various aspects of a country's legal framework.

A criminological approach focused on understanding the development of criminal behavior over an individual’s lifespan.

Refers to the degree to which group-based patterns of behavior and belief are valued or devalued within a society, e.g., modes of speech, style of dress, attitudes and values, etc.

A NIBRS participating agency unable to meet the offense-reporting requirements of full-participation agencies. That is, these agencies submit detailed incident information only on Part I UCR offenses.

A Latin term that translates to "wrong or evil in itself." It refers to acts or behaviors that are universally considered inherently immoral or wrong, regardless of the laws and social norms of a particular society.

Crimes that are considered mala in se are offenses that are fundamentally wrong from a moral standpoint, reflecting a broad consensus across cultures and societies. Examples of mala in se crimes include murder, rape, theft, and assault. These offenses are universally condemned because they violate basic ethical principles and human rights.

Refers to a condition or response that is not well-suited or appropriate for the given situation or environment. In various fields, such as psychology, biology, and ecology, the term is used to describe instances where an organism or individual exhibits behaviors, traits, or characteristics that hinder their ability to function effectively or adapt to their surroundings.

Refers to the historical focus of criminology on male scholars seeking to explain the criminality of men, often excluding female offenders from research and analysis.

Developed by the German philosopher and economist Karl Marx, is a key component of Marxist theory. Marx's analysis of class focuses on the relationship between the means of production, the ruling class, and the working class, providing insights into the dynamics of capitalist societies and the inherent conflict between different social classes.

The body of social, political, and economic ideas developed by Karl Marx (1818–1883) and his collaborator Friedrich Engels, which critique capitalism and propose an alternative socialist and eventually communist society. Marxism is rooted in a materialist understanding of history and focuses on class struggle as the engine of social change. It emphasizes the dynamics of economic systems, the nature of social power, and the possibility of revolutionary transformation.

A type of biological explanation that refers to the process of maturing.

A concept introduced by French sociologist Émile Durkheim in his seminal work, "The Division of Labor in Society" (1893). It refers to a form of social cohesion and solidarity that is characteristic of traditional, preindustrial societies, where individuals are bound together by a shared collective conscience and a strong sense of shared values, norms, and beliefs.

Specialized court programs that aim to address the needs of individuals with mental health disorders who have become involved in the criminal justice system. These courts provide an alternative approach to traditional criminal courts by focusing on rehabilitation, treatment, and support rather than solely on punitive measures. Mental Health Courts are part of the broader movement towards diversion programs that aim to address the underlying issues contributing to criminal behavior.

Refers collectively to all diagnosable mental disorders characterized by alterations in thinking, mood, or behavior that cause deviations from normal behavior.

A significant piece of legislation aimed at addressing the needs of individuals with mental illness who are involved in the criminal justice system. The Act was introduced in the United States Congress and signed into law by President George W. Bush on July 25, 2003.

Known for his ideas about power, social control, and punishment, Foucault’s theories are central to critical criminological thought.

A concept that was introduced by sociologist Paul L. Wirth in his article "The Measurement of Social Status in the United States" published in 1938. The Middle-Class Measuring Rod refers to the tendency of people to evaluate social status, success, and well-being based on middle-class norms and values.

Within the context of psychology, refers to a framework for understanding how individuals learn and acquire new behaviors, attitudes, and emotional responses through observation and imitation of others. Rooted in the principles of social learning theory, particularly as developed by Albert Bandura, modeling theory posits that people can learn not only through direct experience but also by observing the actions and outcomes of others' behaviors. This process involves attention to the model's behavior, retention of the observed behaviors, reproduction of the behavior, and motivation to replicate the behavior based on the observed consequences. Modeling theory has broad applications, including understanding the acquisition of social skills, the impact of media on behavior, therapeutic interventions, and educational strategies. It underscores the significant influence that societal, familial, and media models have on an individual's development and behavior.

Developed by criminologist Terrie E. Moffitt, is a prominent theory within the field of criminology that seeks to explain the different trajectories of criminal behavior observed in individuals. The theory proposes two distinct subgroups of offenders based on their patterns of antisocial behavior: life-course persistent offenders (LCP) and adolescence-limited offenders (AL).

Refers to an individual or group who passionately and actively advocates for a particular moral or ethical cause, often with a strong sense of righteousness and conviction. Moral crusaders are driven by a deep belief in the rightness of their cause and seek to promote and enforce their moral values within society.

These individuals or groups may engage in various activities to advance their moral agenda, such as public advocacy, lobbying for legislative changes, organizing protests or demonstrations, and attempting to influence public opinion through media and social platforms.

A term used to describe a social phenomenon characterized by an exaggerated, widespread, and often irrational fear or concern over a perceived threat to societal values, norms, and moral order. It typically involves the amplification and sensationalization of a specific issue or group, often fueled by all forms of media, public opinion, and authorities.

A concept that refers to the lack or deficiency of moral values, ethical principles, and empathy in individuals or societies. It suggests that individuals or communities may experience poverty not only in material or economic terms but also in their moral and ethical development.

A nonprofit organization in the United States dedicated to improving the lives of individuals and families affected by mental illness. It was founded in 1979 by a group of volunteers and individuals with mental health conditions who sought to create a support network and advocate for better mental health services and policies.

NAMI's mission is to provide support, education, and advocacy for people living with mental health conditions and their families. The organization works to promote awareness, reduce stigma, and improve access to mental health services across the country.

A civil rights organization in the United States. It was founded on February 12, 1909, in response to widespread racial violence and discrimination against African Americans, particularly the 1908 race riot in Springfield, Illinois.

The NAACP's mission is to secure the political, educational, social, and economic equality of rights for all people and to eliminate race-based discrimination. The organization has been instrumental in advocating for civil rights and working towards the elimination of segregation and other forms of racial injustice.

The NAACP uses a variety of strategies to achieve its goals, including legal action, advocacy, lobbying, and public education. Throughout its history, the NAACP has played a crucial role in landmark civil rights cases, such as Brown v. Board of Education, which led to the desegregation of public schools, and it has been involved in numerous other efforts to combat discrimination and promote equal rights for all citizens. The organization continues to be active in addressing contemporary civil rights issues.

Conducted by the Bureau of Justice Statistics in the United States, gathers information on criminal victimization, regardless of whether it was reported to law enforcement. The survey collects data through interviews with individuals, aiming to capture crimes that may go unreported to the police.

Conducted by the Bureau of Justice Statistics in the United States, gathers information on criminal victimization, regardless of whether it was reported to law enforcement. The survey collects data through interviews with individuals, aiming to capture crimes that may go unreported to the police.

An advanced method of crime data collection and reporting developed by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in the United States. Since January 2021, NIBRS replaced the Uniform Crime Report (UCR) as it was designed to provide a detailed and comprehensive review of crime, victims, and more nuanced factors. That is, it provides more detailed and comprehensive information about crimes and incidents.

Unlike the UCR, which only captures summary data on a limited number of offenses, NIBRS collects data on each reported incident and includes a wide range of offense types, such as crimes against persons, property crimes, and crimes against society. It captures extensive details about the incident, the victim(s), the offender(s), and other pertinent factors related to the crime.

The philosophical perspective that certain immutable laws are fundamental to human nature and can be readily ascertained through reason. In contrast, human-made laws are said to derive from human experience and history, both of which are subject to continual change.

A systematic process used to identify and evaluate the needs, gaps, and priorities of a specific target population or community. It involves gathering information and analyzing data to understand the current situation, assess the needs and challenges faced by the population, and determine the resources and interventions required to address those needs effectively.

A needs assessment is a valuable tool used in various fields, such as public health, education, social services, community development, and organizational planning. It helps ensure that resources are allocated efficiently, interventions are tailored to the specific needs of the population, and desired outcomes are achieved effectively.

Characterized by a lack of emotional involvement, attention, and support for their children. This parenting style is associated with a failure to meet the child's physical and emotional needs.

A kind of middle ground between the total free will of the classical perspective and the hard determinism of positivism. It differs from the classical perspective in that it focuses focused on the importance of character and the dynamics of character development, but also incorporates classical concepts by considering the rational choices people make when faced with opportunities for crime. Essentially, it is a modern-day application of classical principles to current problems of crime and crime control in contemporary society.

Also known as Techniques of Neutralization, is a criminological theory developed by David Matza and Gresham Sykes in the 1950s. The theory explores how individuals rationalize and justify their deviant or criminal behavior while still adhering to societal norms and values. It suggests that people use various psychological and cognitive techniques to neutralize the guilt or shame associated with their actions.

A philosophical position that denies the existence of abstract, universal, or real essences for general categories or concepts. According to nominalism, these general categories or universals are merely names or labels

Refers to a concept in criminology and criminal justice that focuses on reducing or preventing criminal behavior by creating an environment where potential offenders perceive a high likelihood of getting caught and facing severe consequences for their actions. It is a theory that relies on the objective elements of deterrence rather than the subjective motivations of individual offenders.

Refers to the initiation of criminal behavior.

A sociological concept introduced by French sociologist Émile Durkheim in his seminal work, "The Division of Labor in Society" (1893). It refers to a form of social cohesion and solidarity that is characteristic of modern, industrial societies, where individuals are bound together by their interdependence and specialization in different roles and functions.

A theoretical framework that examines the unique life experiences and factors that lead women to commit crimes, emphasizing the role of gender-related risk factors.

A social system characterized by male dominance and privilege, which feminist criminologists argue shapes opportunities and social participation in ways that disadvantage women.

A theoretical perspective within the field of criminology that seeks to promote peace, social justice, and non-violent conflict resolution as alternatives to punitive and retributive approaches to crime and justice. It emerged as a response to traditional criminological theories and criminal justice practices that often prioritize punishment and retribution over rehabilitation and healing.

A rigorous evaluation process used to assess the quality, validity, and credibility of scholarly work before it is published. It involves having experts in the relevant field, known as peers or referees, review and provide feedback on an author's work, such as research articles, conference papers, or book manuscripts. The purpose of peer review is to ensure that published research meets high academic standards and contributes to the advancement of knowledge.

Also known as subjective deterrence, is a concept in criminology and criminal justice that focuses on how individuals' perceptions and beliefs about the likelihood of getting caught and the severity of punishments influence their decision-making regarding criminal behavior. Unlike objective deterrence, which emphasizes the actual, observable aspects of law enforcement and punishment, perceptual deterrence centers on the subjective factors that affect an individual's choice to engage in or abstain from criminal acts.

Refers to the impact or influence of living within a particular historical period.

Also known as indulgent parents, exhibit a lenient and non-authoritarian parenting style. They are characterized by their high levels of warmth, responsiveness, and support but their relatively low levels of control and discipline.

Refers to the continuation or duration of an offending career.

A landmark 1896 Supreme Court case that upheld racial segregation laws for public facilities under the “separate but equal” doctrine, later overturned by Brown v. Board of Education.

A theoretical approach in criminology that acknowledges the existence of multiple competing interests, values, and power structures within society. This perspective recognizes that different groups and individuals have diverse viewpoints and may vie for influence and control over the creation and enforcement of laws and the criminal justice system.

Refers to the exercise of power outside of government.

Positivism within criminology refers to a theoretical approach that emphasizes the application of scientific methods and empirical observation in the study of crime and criminal behavior. It emerged in the late 19th century as a response to the limitations of earlier philosophical and moralistic explanations of crime.

Positivist criminology rejects the idea that crime is solely a result of individual choices or moral failings. Instead, it seeks to understand crime as a social phenomenon influenced by various factors, including biological, psychological, and social determinants. Positivist criminologists believe that scientific methods can uncover the underlying causes of criminal behavior and inform effective crime prevention and control strategies.

The key principles of positivist criminology include: (1) empiricism, (2) determinism, and (3) objectivity, and (4) use of the scientific method.

Positivist criminology has led to advancements in the understanding of crime through the use of empirical research and statistical analysis. It has influenced the development of various subfields within criminology, such as biosocial criminology, psychological criminology, and sociological criminology. Positivist perspectives have also influenced the development of evidence-based policies and interventions in the field of criminal justice.

A theoretical approach within the field of criminology that emerged in the late 20th century and is influenced by postmodern philosophy. This perspective challenges the assumptions and methods of traditional criminology and questions the notion of a universal and objective truth. Instead, postmodern criminologists emphasize the subjectivity of knowledge and the complexities of crime, deviance, and the criminal justice system.

A version of social constructionism that challenges the modernist assumptions of universal truth, rationality, and progress, and instead emphasizes the diversity, complexity, and contingency of social reality.

A systematic assessment and analysis of the implementation, delivery, and operations of a program, intervention, or policy. It focuses on understanding how the program is being implemented and the processes involved in delivering the intended services or activities. The primary aim of process evaluation is to provide insights into program operations, identify areas for improvement, and assess fidelity to the program model.

Refers to a psychological approach that was developed by Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis. It is a theory of personality and a method of psychotherapy that focuses on the unconscious mind and its influence on human behavior. The core ideas of the psychoanalytic perspective revolve around the role of unconscious thoughts, feelings, and motivations in shaping human experiences and behaviors.

Also known as a sociopath, is an individual who exhibits a cluster of personality traits and behaviors associated with antisocial personality disorder (ASPD). Psychopathy is a term commonly used in forensic psychology and criminology to describe individuals who display a specific set of characteristics, which often include manipulativeness, a lack of empathy, shallow emotions, and a propensity for engaging in impulsive and antisocial behaviors.

Refers to the decisions, actions, and guidelines adopted by governments or public authorities to address societal issues, regulate behavior, and promote the collective well-being of the public. It encompasses a wide range of laws, regulations, programs, and initiatives that shape and guide the actions of governments and public institutions.

A social construct used to categorize and classify human populations based on physical characteristics such as skin color, hair texture, and facial features. The concept of race has been historically used to distinguish and group people into distinct categories, often with the assumption of inherent biological or genetic differences between racial groups.

It is important to understand that race is a social construct and not a biological or scientific category. While there are variations in physical traits among human populations, genetic variation does not align neatly with traditional racial classifications. In fact, genetic differences between individuals within a racial group are often greater than differences between racial groups.

The understanding of race and racial categories varies across different cultures and societies, and classifications have changed over time. Racial categories can also be influenced by cultural, historical, and political factors.

Due to its social nature, race has been used as a basis for discrimination, inequality, and prejudice throughout history. However, it is crucial to recognize that race should not be used to determine intelligence, character, or other inherent qualities of individuals or groups. Acknowledging the social construct of race is essential in promoting a more inclusive and equitable society that respects the diversity of human populations and values the dignity and rights of all individuals, regardless of their racial background.

A law enforcement practice in which individuals are targeted or treated differently by law enforcement solely based on their race, ethnicity, national origin, or perceived racial characteristics. It involves the use of race or ethnicity as a factor in making decisions about whom to stop, question, search, or investigate, without any specific evidence of criminal activity or wrongdoing.

A perspective suggesting that an increase in a minority population can be perceived as a threat by the majority group, leading to stricter social controls and legal measures to maintain dominance.

A version of social constructionism that completely rejects the idea of an objective reality and sees everything as socially constructed, including one’s own analysis.

A theoretical approach within the field of criminology that seeks to address crime and social deviance from a structural and critical perspective. It focuses on the underlying social, economic, and political conditions that contribute to crime, rather than solely focusing on individual motivations and actions. Radical criminology emerged in the 1960s and 1970s as a response to the limitations of traditional criminological theories, particularly those that ignored the role of power dynamics and social inequalities in shaping criminal behavior and the criminal justice system.

Rational Choice Theory is a perspective within criminology that suggests individuals make decisions and engage in behavior based on a rational calculation of costs and benefits. It is a framework that assumes individuals act in their own self-interest and seek to maximize their personal advantages while minimizing potential disadvantages.

According to rational choice theory, individuals consider the potential rewards and risks associated with a particular action before deciding whether to engage in it. They weigh the expected benefits, such as financial gain or personal satisfaction, against the potential costs, such as legal consequences or physical harm. The theory posits that individuals make rational choices by comparing the potential outcomes and selecting the course of action that offers the greatest net benefit.

Developed out of the neoclassical school of criminology and is based on the belief that criminals make a conscious, rational, and at least partially informed choice to commit crime after weighing the costs and benefits of available alternatives. The two main varieties of choice theory are routine activities theory and situational choice theory.

A psychological defense mechanism identified by Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis. It refers to a process in which an individual unconsciously adopts beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors that are the opposite of their true feelings or desires. This defense mechanism operates to manage anxiety or internal conflicts by presenting an outward expression that is socially acceptable or morally aligned, despite conflicting thoughts or emotions within the individual.

The tendency of a convicted individual to reoffend. Studies indicate higher recidivism rates among inmates with mental health conditions compared to the general prison population.

A concept that refers to the process of treating abstract or conceptual ideas as if they were concrete, tangible, or real entities. It involves attributing a higher degree of concreteness or objectivity to something that is abstract or subjective in nature.

In the context of social theory, reification often involves treating social constructs or relationships as if they are natural or inherent aspects of reality, rather than recognizing them as socially constructed and contingent upon human interpretation and interaction. This can lead to the perception that social structures or categories, such as race, gender, or social classes, are fixed and unchangeable, rather than being socially constructed and subject to change.

A concept developed by Australian criminologists John Braithwaite as part of their theory of restorative justice. Reintegrative shaming is a form of social control that aims to address and reduce criminal behavior by using shame in a way that promotes the reintegration of offenders back into society.

In the context of sociology and social psychology, refers to the perception or feeling of being disadvantaged or deprived in comparison to others. It occurs when individuals or groups believe that they are not receiving their fair share of resources, opportunities, or rewards, which can lead to feelings of frustration, resentment, and discontent.

A political ideology that claims that the ethnic and cultural identity of a certain group of people is being threatened or erased by the influx and integration of another group of people, usually of a different race, religion, or culture. Replacement theory also accuses the elites or the authorities of facilitating or encouraging this process, either deliberately or negligently.

A way to describe the curvilinear relationship between age and crime.

A dimension of parenting that refers to the level of warmth, emotional support, and sensitivity that parents show in response to their children's needs and emotions. It is one of the two main dimensions of parenting style, with the other being demandingness.

Responsive parents are attuned to their children's feelings, desires, and developmental stages, and they provide appropriate support and guidance. They actively listen to their children, validate their emotions, and offer comfort and understanding during times of distress. Responsive parents also foster open communication, allowing children to express themselves freely without fear of judgment or punishment.

Variables that increase or decrease the likelihood of criminal behavior; often assessed at different life stages.

Prominent sociologists associated with the Chicago School of Sociology, a major sociological tradition that emerged in the early 20th century, primarily at the University of Chicago. Their collaboration and research made significant contributions to the fields of urban sociology, social ecology, and human ecology.

Was an influential American sociologist renowned for his contributions to the field of sociology and the development of various sociological theories. He made significant contributions in the areas of social theory, the sociology of science, and the sociology of deviance.

Leading scholars of RCT who have proposed a framework for modeling offenders’ decisions and have applied RCT to various types of crimes and crime prevention strategies.

A criminologist who is known for his work in the area of social learning theory. He developed and expanded upon Edwin Sutherland's differential association theory. Akers argued that criminal behavior is learned through social interactions and that individuals are more likely to engage in criminal activities if they associate with others who have pro-criminal attitudes and behaviors. His work emphasizes the role of reinforcement and punishment in shaping criminal behavior and has had a lasting influence on the understanding of how individuals acquire criminal values and engage in criminal acts.

Examines the interaction of motivated offenders, capable guardians, and suitable targets as an explanation or crime and suggests that an individual’s everyday activities contribute significantly to the likelihood of his or her victimization.

A landmark legal case in the United States that exposed racial injustice and highlighted the deep racial prejudices and flaws in the American justice system during the 1930s. The case involved the wrongful arrest, trial, and conviction of nine African American teenagers on false charges of raping two white women.

Authorizes federal grants to government agencies and community faith-based organizations to provide employment assistance, substance abuse treatment, housing, family programing, mentoring, victim support, and other services intended to reduce recidivism.

Refers to the enforced separation of different racial, ethnic, religious, or social groups in a community, organization, or society. This separation can occur in various aspects of life, such as housing, education, employment, and public facilities. Historically, segregation has been most prominently associated with racial segregation, particularly in the United States during the era of Jim Crow laws, where laws and policies enforced the separation of African Americans from white Americans in various public spaces.

Segregation can take different forms, including de jure segregation, which is segregation imposed by law, and de facto segregation, which occurs without explicit legal mandates but as a result of social and economic factors. Efforts to combat segregation and promote integration have been central to various civil rights movements around the world. The goal is to create more inclusive and equitable societies where individuals from different backgrounds have equal access to opportunities and resources.

Another descendant of classical criminology that argues that low self-control, a stable personality trait, predisposes individuals to crime and other present-oriented activities.

Involves individuals reporting their own involvement in criminal activities. These surveys are typically conducted anonymously and can provide insights into less detected or unreported crimes. They are often used to study juvenile delinquency and certain types of offenses.

Was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a groundbreaking approach to understanding the human mind and behavior. He is considered one of the most influential figures in the field of psychology and his ideas have had a profound impact on various disciplines, including psychology, psychiatry, and cultural studies.

The social and philosophical ideas developed by the German sociologist and philosopher Georg Simmel (1858–1918). His work explores the nature of society, social interactions, culture, and the relationships between individuals and social structures. Simmel is considered one of the founding figures of sociology, but his approach is distinct from that of his contemporaries, such as Max Weber or Émile Durkheim, due to his focus on the dynamic, fluid nature of social life.

Shifts the focus of crime prevention away from the offender and onto the context in which crime occurs. Instead of focusing on why people commit crime, it looks primarily at why crime occurs in specific settings. It emphasizes the concept of opportunity – reduce opportunities for crime in specific situations to prevent crime. Situational crime control works by removing or reducing criminal opportunity.

Also known as Social Control Theory, is a criminological theory developed by Travis Hirschi in 1969. The theory proposes that the strength of an individual's social bonds to society plays a crucial role in determining their propensity to engage in deviant or criminal behavior. It suggests that individuals with strong social bonds are less likely to commit crimes because they have more to lose by engaging in such behavior.

Refers to the idea that many aspects of our reality, including concepts, categories, identities, and even certain behaviors, are not inherent or naturally occurring but are instead created, shaped, and maintained by society and culture. These constructs are not objective or universal truths but are rather products of human perception, interpretation, and interaction.

A theoretical perspective that argues that what counts as reality is the outcome of social processes through which humans interactively create and negotiate meaning about the world.

A group of criminological theories that focus on the mechanisms and processes by which societies regulate and control individual behavior to prevent deviance and criminality. These theories suggest that the presence of social bonds, attachments, and conformity to societal norms play a crucial role in deterring individuals from engaging in deviant behavior.

Refers to behaviors, actions, or characteristics that violate social norms, values, or expectations within a particular society or culture. Deviance is a relative concept, as what is considered deviant in one society may be accepted or even encouraged in another. The concept of social deviance is essential for understanding how societies define and enforce acceptable behavior.

A criminological theory that focuses on the influence of neighborhood characteristics and social factors on crime and deviance. Developed by sociologists at the University of Chicago, particularly Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay, in the early 20th century, this theory examines how certain neighborhood attributes can contribute to higher rates of crime and a breakdown in social control.

An interdisciplinary field that studies the complex interactions between human societies and their environment. It draws from sociology, anthropology, geography, urban planning, and other disciplines to understand how social and environmental factors influence each other and shape human behavior and social organization.

A set of sociological perspectives that focus on the role of social interactions in shaping human behavior, language development, and the construction of social reality. These theories emphasize how individuals develop a sense of self and meaning through their interactions with others and the larger social

Also known as Social Cognitive Theory or Social Learning Socialization Theory, is a psychological and criminological theory developed by Albert Bandura in the 1960s. The theory proposes that individuals learn new behaviors, attitudes, and values by observing and imitating others, particularly those they perceive as role models or authority figures. Social Learning Theory emphasizes the importance of the social environment in shaping human behavior and focuses on how learned behaviors influence future actions.

Also known as social capital, refer to the network of relationships and connections that individuals and groups have in a society. These resources include both tangible and intangible assets that arise from social interactions and can provide various advantages and opportunities for individuals and communities. Social resources are essential for personal and collective well-being, as they facilitate access to information, support, and resources that may not be available through other means.

Also known as evolutionary psychology or sociobiology, are theoretical frameworks that seek to explain human behavior and social phenomena by integrating evolutionary biology and genetics with social and cultural factors. These theories propose that certain behavioral and social traits in humans have evolved through natural selection, as they provided survival and reproductive advantages to our ancestors.

Often referred to as domestic violence, is a pattern of abusive behavior or mistreatment that occurs within an intimate or familial relationship, typically between spouses or partners. It involves the use of physical, emotional, psychological, sexual, or economic tactics to exert power and control over the other person.

Provides for the Basic Mental Health Services standard (F-03 in the 2018 manuals for jails and prisons) and is meant to ensure that individuals with mental health problems are able to maintain their best level of functioning. The immediate goal of treatment is to alleviate symptoms of serious mental disorders and to prevent relapse.

Was a renowned sociologist and criminologist known for his work on social reactions to deviant behavior and moral panics. In 1995, he published a book titled "Visions of Social Control: Crime, Punishment, and Classification." In this book, Cohen explored various aspects of social control, including how societies define, classify, and respond to deviance and criminal behavior.

A criminological and sociological perspective that seeks to explain the relationship between social structure, cultural goals, and the occurrence of deviant behavior. The theory, first proposed by sociologist Robert K. Merton in the 1930s, suggests that individuals may turn to deviance and criminal behavior when they experience strain or stress resulting from the discrepancy between culturally prescribed goals and the means available to achieve those goals.

A key figure in cultural studies and critical criminology, Hall's work on media, crime, and race is influential.

A sociological and criminological perspective that explores how certain social groups develop distinct norms, values, beliefs, and practices that differ from those of the dominant culture. These subcultures can emerge as a response to social and economic conditions, creating unique ways of life and patterns of behavior that may sometimes lead to deviance or criminal activities.

A sociological concept that proposes the existence of certain subcultures or social groups within a society that promote and accept violence as a means of resolving conflicts and gaining social status. This theory was first introduced by Marvin Wolfgang and Franco Ferracuti in the 1960s as an attempt to explain the high rates of violent crime in urban areas.

A concept in economics and decision theory that focuses on how individuals make choices based on their subjective evaluations of the utility, or satisfaction, they expect to derive from different options or outcomes. This model is a fundamental component of microeconomics and helps explain how individuals make rational decisions by weighing the benefits and costs of various alternatives.

In the context of program evaluation, summative evaluations play a crucial role in assessing the overall effectiveness and impact of a program. They provide insights into whether the program's objectives and goals have been achieved and whether the intended outcomes have been realized. Summative evaluations are typically conducted at the conclusion of the program's implementation and focus on making judgments about the program's success or effectiveness.

A specialized dataset and reporting tool used to collect detailed information about homicides in the United States. It is part of the broader UCR program administered by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). The UCR SHR is designed to provide law enforcement agencies with a more comprehensive and detailed picture of homicides in their jurisdiction. While the standard UCR report collects basic information about crimes, including the number of homicides, the SHR goes further by collecting extensive details about each homicide incident.

A sociological perspective that focuses on the study of how individuals create and interpret symbols to develop shared meanings and construct their social reality. It is a micro-level theory that examines the everyday interactions between people and how these interactions shape their perceptions, identities, and social behavior.

A sociological perspective and theoretical framework that focuses on the role of symbols and human interaction in shaping society and individual behavior. It emerged as a prominent school of thought in sociology during the early 20th century, primarily associated with scholars like George Herbert Mead and Herbert Blumer.

Also known as temporal precedence or time order, is a fundamental concept in research and science that refers to the chronological sequence of events or occurrences. It asserts that there is a clear cause-and-effect relationship between two variables, with one variable (the cause) preceding the other variable (the effect) in time.

To establish causal relationships between variables, temporal ordering is essential. For a cause to truly lead to an effect, the cause must happen before the effect. This principle is a crucial criterion in experimental and quasi-experimental research designs, where researchers manipulate an independent variable (the cause) to observe its impact on a dependent variable (the effect) while ensuring that the cause precedes the effect in time.

Theoretical criminology provides a framework for understanding the complex causes of crime and helps generate hypotheses and guide empirical research. By studying these theories, criminologists seek to develop effective crime prevention strategies, inform policy decisions, and contribute to the broader understanding of crime and criminal justice.

Theoretical criminology encompasses a wide range of perspectives and theories, each offering different explanations and insights into criminal behavior. Some prominent theoretical perspectives within criminology include: (1) Classical Criminology, (2) Biological and Biosocial, (3) Psychological, (4) Social Structure, (5) Social Process, (6) Strain, and (7) Critical/Radical criminology.

Succinctly, an explanation. Also, a part of everyday life and an attempt to identify and explain the order of natural occurrences through statements about correlations between observable events that would be otherwise unexplainable.

A criminological theory developed by Marvin D. Thornberry. It provides a comprehensive framework for understanding delinquent behavior by examining the complex interaction between individual characteristics and social factors over time.

Also known as personality trait theory, is a psychological perspective that focuses on identifying and describing the enduring patterns of behavior, thoughts, and emotions that make up an individual's personality. According to trait theory, individuals possess characteristic traits or predispositions that influence how they perceive, interpret, and respond to the world around them.

Long-term pathways of behavior, including the progression or cessation of criminal activity.

Refers to significant life events or experiences that have the potential to alter an individual's trajectory away from delinquent behavior. These events can act as pivotal moments that lead to desistance or a reduction in criminal involvement.

Under the leadership of the Attorney General of the United States, the Justice Department is composed of more than 40 separate component organizations and more than 115,000 employees. Headquartered at the Robert F. Kennedy Building in Washington, D.C., the Department maintains field offices in all states and territories across the United States and in more than 50 countries around the world.

Was a program, maintained by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in the United States, collects and publishes data on reported crimes. It includes information on various crimes, such as murder, robbery, burglary, and motor vehicle theft, providing statistics at the national, state, and local levels.

Variables in the social science refers to a measurable or observable concept or characteristic that can vary or take on different values. Variables are used to study and understand the relationships between different phenomena or concepts. Variables can be classified into two main types; that is independent and dependent.

Measures the frequency of individuals or households experiencing crime. These rates provide an understanding of the likelihood of becoming a victim of crime within a given population.

Proposed by the German sociologist Max Weber, is a theoretical framework that emphasizes the multidimensional nature of social stratification. Unlike Karl Marx, who focused primarily on economic factors as the basis of social class, Weber argued that social class should be understood as a combination of three interrelated dimensions: class, status, and party.

Refers to the sociological and philosophical ideas of the German sociologist Max Weber (1864–1920). Weber’s work addresses the nature of society, the process of rationalization, and the role of religion, authority, and economics in shaping social structures.

A paradigm that draws on an evidence-based criminological approach to identify and promote effective programs and practices for preventing and controlling crime.

Detailed and authoritative documents that presents information, analysis, and proposals on a particular topic or issue. It is typically produced by a government, organization, or company to educate readers, provide insights, and offer recommendations or solutions related to a specific subject.

White papers are often used to address complex problems, introduce new policies or strategies, or present research findings. They serve as informative and persuasive documents, aiming to influence opinions, shape debates, and guide decision-making. White papers are widely used in various fields, including government, business, technology, healthcare, and education.

The right to treatment for people with mental illness was first recognized in this 1972 case within Alabama. The court concluded that there were many treatment options for individuals with mental illness that did not involve warehousing in large state institutions.

Also known as the "Zone of Transition" or the "Transitional Zone," is a term used in urban sociology and criminology. It refers to a specific area within a city that experiences rapid demographic and social changes, often associated with high levels of crime, poverty, and urban decay.