Race/Ethnicity and Crime
Module 14 considers how the meaning of race impacts criminological theory and criminal justice practice. A brief review of the history of race is used to contextualize how modern criminological theory, e.g., sociobiology, was influenced and contributed to forms of institutional racism. In addition, the module provides a cursory historical review of race in the areas of the American legal system and politics. Moreover, the module includes a review of pre to post Civil War eras, which provided the foundation for several criminal cases brought against private individuals for discrimination. The module concludes with the timeframe of 1960 to the present and includes an essential discussion of the death penalty as an example of racially influenced punishment.
Learning Objectives
After completing this module, you should be able to:
- discuss the history of race as a source of conflict between one human group against another.
- explain how the intersection of race and crime complicate social science inquiry.
- illustrate how race has tainted legal proceedings and enforcement of the criminal law.
- describe how Jim Crow laws were enacted and used to enforce segregation between the white and minority populations.
- discuss the disproportionate involvement of minorities with street crime.
- identify seminal and modern sociobiological theories of crime causation.
- summarize the Human Genome Project (HGP).
- discuss how race is related to the disproportionate number of African Americans who are executed at a rate much greater than whites in the American Criminal Justice System.
Summary
Race/ethnicity and crime remain sensitive and contentious topics that have been subject to extensive research, debate, and public discourse. It is important to approach this discussion with an understanding that crime is a complex issue influenced by multiple factors, and attributing criminal behavior solely to race or ethnicity would be an oversimplification.
Numerous studies have consistently shown that certain racial and ethnic groups, particularly Black and Hispanic individuals, are overrepresented in various stages of the criminal justice system, including arrests, convictions, and incarcerations. These disparities have led to concerns about racial profiling, discrimination, and unequal treatment within the justice system.
Crime rates are closely related to socioeconomic factors, and communities experiencing poverty and limited access to education and job opportunities tend to have higher crime rates. Racial and ethnic minorities are more likely to face economic challenges due to historical and systemic inequalities, which may contribute to higher crime rates in those communities.
There have been well-documented cases of racial bias and discriminatory policing practices, leading to increased scrutiny of law enforcement’s treatment of racial and ethnic minorities. Instances of racial profiling and excessive use of force have further strained trust between minority communities and law enforcement agencies.
The history of institutional and structural racism in societies has perpetuated inequalities in education, housing, employment, and economic opportunities for racial and ethnic minorities. These inequalities can contribute to crime by limiting opportunities for advancement and fostering an environment of hopelessness and desperation in some communities.
Media portrayals of crime can perpetuate negative stereotypes about racial and ethnic minorities, leading to biases and prejudice among the public and law enforcement. This can result in biased perceptions of crime and criminality based on race or ethnicity.
It is important to consider intersectionality when discussing race/ethnicity and crime. People who belong to multiple marginalized groups, such as Black women or LGBTQ+ individuals of color, may experience unique challenges that can impact their interactions with the criminal justice system.
The relationship between race/ethnicity and crime is not unique to any specific country. Different societies have their historical and cultural contexts that influence crime rates and patterns, and these factors should also be considered in any analysis.
Addressing race/ethnicity and crime requires a multifaceted and comprehensive approach. This includes addressing systemic racism, promoting equal opportunities and resources, reforming policing practices, investing in education and social services, and supporting community-based interventions. It is essential to foster understanding, empathy, and open dialogue to create a fair and just society that respects the dignity and rights of all individuals, regardless of their race or ethnicity.
Key Takeaways
- Studies have found that certain racial and ethnic groups, particularly Black and Hispanic individuals, are disproportionately represented in various stages of the criminal justice system, such as arrests, convictions, and incarcerations.
- Crime rates are closely associated with socioeconomic conditions. Communities that experience poverty and have limited access to education and job opportunities tend to exhibit higher crime rates.
- Racial and ethnic minorities often face greater economic challenges due to historical and systemic inequalities, which may contribute to higher crime rates in these communities.
- There have been documented instances of racial bias and discriminatory policing practices, including racial profiling and excessive use of force.
- Historical institutional and structural racism has perpetuated inequalities in education, housing, employment, and economic opportunities for racial and ethnic minorities.
- Media portrayals of crime often perpetuate negative stereotypes about racial and ethnic minorities, leading to biases and prejudice among the public and within law enforcement.
Key Terms/Concepts
Human Genome Project (HGP)
Institutional Racism
Jim Crow Laws
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
Race
Racial Profiling
Segregation
Scottsboro Boys
Sociobiological Theories
Subculture-of-Violence
Modern Application
Douglas Heaven (July 2020) argues that, Predictive policing algorithms are racist. They need to be dismantled (MIT Technology Review).
- How big data might contribute to effective police work and increase public safety?
- How a predictive algorithm is potentially skewed by arrest rates?
- According to US Department of Justice figures, you are more than twice as likely to be arrested if you are Black than if you are white.
- According to Dorothy Roberts who studies law and social rights at the University of Pennsylvania, “Racism has always been about predicting, about making certain racial groups seem as if they are predisposed to do bad things and therefore justify controlling them,” she said.
Read, Review, Watch and Listen
1. Read Chapter 17: Race/Ethnicity and Crime by Matthew Pate, State University of New York at Albany & William C. Plouffe Jr., Kutztown University
2. Review the National Human Genome Research Institute’s Fact Sheet: Human Genome Project (NIH, 2023).
a. After the HGP was completed, research began to focus on finding individual variants from the reference human genome. HGP-related information may have significant implications for crime-control policy.
b. The human genome refers to a complete copy of the entire set of human gene instructions.
c. Genes are made of DNA and carry coded instructions for making everything the body needs.
d. The focus has now turned to finding individual differences or variants from the reference human genome that was developed by the HGP.
e. Genetic knowledge can have significant implications for criminal justice.
f. Many of the questions raised about the role of genetics in behavior may be answered by the results of research begun by the HGP.
g. HGP-related information is expected to support the development of public policy options related to crime prevention and offender treatment.
3. Review the Death Penalty Information Center’s (DPIC) Facts about the Death Penalty Fact Sheet
a. According to the DPIC, the death penalty has been imposed disproportionately on racial minorities throughout most of U.S. history.
b. Capital punishment advocates are more concerned with whether the death penalty is fairly imposed than whether there are ethnic differences in the rates of imposition.
c. They say that the focus should be on sentencing those who commit capital crimes to death, regardless of any social characteristic (race, ethnicity, gender, etc.).
d. The Washington-based Constitution Project has recommended that all jurisdictions imposing the death penalty should create mechanisms to help ensure it is not imposed in a racially discriminatory manner.
4. Review Scottsboro Boys (History, August 20, 2022) [last accessed August 2023]
a. The Scottsboro Boys were a group of nine African American teenagers who were falsely accused of raping two white women on a freight train in Alabama in 1931. The case gained national and international attention due to its blatant injustice and racial prejudice, becoming a symbol of the deeply ingrained racism and flawed legal system of the time.
5. Watch Racial Profiling 2.0 (CBS News, February 20, 2020) [last accessed August 2023]
6. Listen to Why the crack cocaine epidemic hit Black communities ‘first and worst’
7. Listen to NPR’s Author Interviews, Why the crack cocaine epidemic hit Black communities ‘first and worst’ (Mosley, T. July 13, 2023) [last accessed August 2023]
To access the PPT file, click HERE. Note that files are updated regularly and as such might change in content and appearance.
Read, Review, Watch and Listen to all listed materials by the due date listed within the course LMS (i.e., Blackboard) site.
Contact the professor with any course-related questions
Click HERE to report any needed updates, e.g., broken links.
Discussion Questions
- How do socioeconomic conditions influence crime rates in racially and ethnically diverse communities, and what specific interventions can be implemented to address these root causes?
- What evidence supports the claim that racial and ethnic minorities are overrepresented in the criminal justice system, and what are the potential solutions to address these disparities?
- In what ways have documented cases of racial bias and discriminatory policing practices affected the trust between law enforcement and minority communities, and what steps can be taken to rebuild this trust?
- How do historical institutional and structural racism contribute to higher crime rates among racial and ethnic minorities, and what long-term strategies are necessary to break this cycle?
- How do media portrayals of crime shape public perceptions of racial and ethnic groups, and what can be done to ensure more balanced and accurate media representations?
Supplemental Resources
- U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics (January 2018), Race and Ethnicity of Violent Crime: Offenders and Arrestees, 2018 (Allen J. Beck, Ph.D., BJS Statistician)
- Prevalence rate of violent crime in the United States from 2014 to 2022, by race/ethnicity (Statista, Sep. 2023) [last accessed Nov. 2023]
- 2019 Crime In the United States: Arrests by Race and Ethnicity (FBI, 2019) [last accessed, Nov. 2023]
The HGP was an international scientific research initiative that aimed to map and sequence the entire human genome. It was one of the most significant and ambitious scientific endeavors in history, spanning several countries and involving thousands of researchers and institutions.
The primary goal of the Human Genome Project, which was officially launched in 1990, was to identify and determine the sequence of all the genes in the human genome and to analyze their functions. The human genome is the complete set of genetic information present in human DNA, and it contains all the instructions necessary for building and maintaining a human being.
Also known as systemic racism, is a form of racism that is embedded within the policies, practices, and structures of social institutions, leading to the perpetuation of racial disparities and inequalities. Unlike individual acts of racism, which involve prejudiced beliefs or discriminatory actions by individuals, institutional racism operates at a broader societal level and affects entire communities or racial/ethnic groups.
A series of state and local laws enacted in the United States from the late 19th century through the mid-20th century. These laws enforced racial segregation and discrimination, primarily targeting African Americans and other racial minorities, particularly in the Southern states.
The term "Jim Crow" originated from a caricature of a Black man used in minstrel shows in the 19th century, which perpetuated racial stereotypes. The Jim Crow laws were a response to the Reconstruction Era (1865-1877), during which significant efforts were made to establish civil rights for African Americans following the abolition of slavery. As Reconstruction ended, Southern states began enacting laws to establish a system of racial segregation and disenfranchisement.
A civil rights organization in the United States. It was founded on February 12, 1909, in response to widespread racial violence and discrimination against African Americans, particularly the 1908 race riot in Springfield, Illinois.
The NAACP's mission is to secure the political, educational, social, and economic equality of rights for all people and to eliminate race-based discrimination. The organization has been instrumental in advocating for civil rights and working towards the elimination of segregation and other forms of racial injustice.
The NAACP uses a variety of strategies to achieve its goals, including legal action, advocacy, lobbying, and public education. Throughout its history, the NAACP has played a crucial role in landmark civil rights cases, such as Brown v. Board of Education, which led to the desegregation of public schools, and it has been involved in numerous other efforts to combat discrimination and promote equal rights for all citizens. The organization continues to be active in addressing contemporary civil rights issues.
A social construct used to categorize and classify human populations based on physical characteristics such as skin color, hair texture, and facial features. The concept of race has been historically used to distinguish and group people into distinct categories, often with the assumption of inherent biological or genetic differences between racial groups.
It is important to understand that race is a social construct and not a biological or scientific category. While there are variations in physical traits among human populations, genetic variation does not align neatly with traditional racial classifications. In fact, genetic differences between individuals within a racial group are often greater than differences between racial groups.
The understanding of race and racial categories varies across different cultures and societies, and classifications have changed over time. Racial categories can also be influenced by cultural, historical, and political factors.
Due to its social nature, race has been used as a basis for discrimination, inequality, and prejudice throughout history. However, it is crucial to recognize that race should not be used to determine intelligence, character, or other inherent qualities of individuals or groups. Acknowledging the social construct of race is essential in promoting a more inclusive and equitable society that respects the diversity of human populations and values the dignity and rights of all individuals, regardless of their racial background.
A law enforcement practice in which individuals are targeted or treated differently by law enforcement solely based on their race, ethnicity, national origin, or perceived racial characteristics. It involves the use of race or ethnicity as a factor in making decisions about whom to stop, question, search, or investigate, without any specific evidence of criminal activity or wrongdoing.
Refers to the enforced separation of different racial, ethnic, religious, or social groups in a community, organization, or society. This separation can occur in various aspects of life, such as housing, education, employment, and public facilities. Historically, segregation has been most prominently associated with racial segregation, particularly in the United States during the era of Jim Crow laws, where laws and policies enforced the separation of African Americans from white Americans in various public spaces.
Segregation can take different forms, including de jure segregation, which is segregation imposed by law, and de facto segregation, which occurs without explicit legal mandates but as a result of social and economic factors. Efforts to combat segregation and promote integration have been central to various civil rights movements around the world. The goal is to create more inclusive and equitable societies where individuals from different backgrounds have equal access to opportunities and resources.
A landmark legal case in the United States that exposed racial injustice and highlighted the deep racial prejudices and flaws in the American justice system during the 1930s. The case involved the wrongful arrest, trial, and conviction of nine African American teenagers on false charges of raping two white women.
Also known as evolutionary psychology or sociobiology, are theoretical frameworks that seek to explain human behavior and social phenomena by integrating evolutionary biology and genetics with social and cultural factors. These theories propose that certain behavioral and social traits in humans have evolved through natural selection, as they provided survival and reproductive advantages to our ancestors.
A sociological concept that proposes the existence of certain subcultures or social groups within a society that promote and accept violence as a means of resolving conflicts and gaining social status. This theory was first introduced by Marvin Wolfgang and Franco Ferracuti in the 1960s as an attempt to explain the high rates of violent crime in urban areas.
