Module 1 introduces criminology as an intellectual domain comprised of various academic disciplines; that is, psychology, biology, anthropology, law, and sociology. In addition, the module provides a historic overview of the development of the discipline and considers how its intellectual foundation has prepared it for the analysis of crime within the twenty-first century.

Summary

Criminology is a field of study that focuses on understanding crime, criminals, and the criminal justice system. It involves the examination of various aspects of crime, including its causes, consequences, and prevention. Criminologists utilize theories, research methods, and data analysis to gain insights into criminal behavior and its societal impact.

The main objectives of criminology are to develop an understanding of why crimes occur, to identify patterns and trends in criminal behavior, and to find effective strategies for crime prevention and control. Criminologists study various factors that contribute to criminal behavior, including individual, social, economic, and environmental factors. By examining these factors, criminologists aim to explain why some individuals are more likely to engage in criminal activities than others.

Criminology draws upon multiple disciplines, including sociology, psychology, economics, and law. It incorporates a range of research methods, such as surveys, interviews, experiments, and statistical analysis, to collect and analyze data. These methods help criminologists to study crime rates, victimization patterns, offender profiles, and the effectiveness of different interventions.

The findings of criminological research can be applied to policy development and crime prevention strategies. Criminologists often work closely with law enforcement agencies, policymakers, and social organizations to develop evidence-based approaches to crime reduction. They may also contribute to the development of laws and policies that aim to promote social justice and reduce crime rates.

Some areas of specialization within criminology include:

• Theoretical criminology – Examining various theories that seek to explain why individuals commit crimes, such as strain theory, social learning theory, and rational choice theory.
• Criminal profiling – Analyzing offender characteristics, behaviors, and patterns of criminal activity to develop profiles that assist in the identification and apprehension of criminals.
• Penology – Studying the punishment and rehabilitation of offenders, including the effectiveness of correctional programs and the impact of imprisonment on recidivism.
• Victimology – Investigating the experiences and consequences of crime on victims, as well as the factors that contribute to victimization and ways to support and empower victims.
• Comparative criminology – Comparing crime rates, criminal justice systems, and crime prevention strategies across different countries or regions to understand the impact of social and cultural factors.

Overall, criminology aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of crime and contribute to the development of evidence-based policies and interventions to prevent and address criminal behavior in society.

Criminologists have developed several theoretical domains to explain why individuals engage in crime, including:

1. Rational Choice Theory: This theory suggests that individuals engage in crime because they believe it is a profitable and low-risk activity. In other words, they weigh the potential benefits of committing a crime against the potential risks of getting caught and punished.
2. Social Structure Theory: Social structure theory is a criminological perspective that examines how social structures and institutions in society contribute to criminal behavior. It suggests that the arrangement and organization of social institutions, such as the family, education, economy, and the community, play a significant role in shaping individual behavior and influencing the likelihood of criminal involvement.
3. Social Learning Theory: This theory argues that individuals learn to engage in crime through observing the behaviors of others, particularly those who are close to them. They may also be influenced by media portrayals of hackers as glamorous and successful.
4. Strain Theory: This theory posits that individuals engage in crime when they experience strain or pressure in their lives, such as economic hardship or social exclusion. Crime may provide a way for them to alleviate their stress or gain a sense of power and control.
5. Routine Activities Theory: This theory suggests that crime occurs when there is a convergence of three factors: a motivated offender, a suitable target (such as a vulnerable computer system), and the absence of capable guardians (such as effective cybersecurity measures).
6. Self-Control Theory: This theory proposes that individuals who engage in crime have low levels of self-control, which makes them more likely to act impulsively and make decisions without considering the consequences.

Overall, these criminological theories help us understand the various motives, opportunities, and situational factors that contribute to crime. By better understanding the underlying causes of this type of criminal behavior, we can develop more effective strategies for preventing and responding to cybercrime.

Key Terms/Concepts

Applied Criminology
Chicago School of Social Ecology
Classical School of Criminology
Comparative Criminology
Correlation
Criminal Justice
Criminologist
Determinism
Edwin Sutherland
Positivism
Rational Choice Theory
Theoretical Criminology
Theory
Variables

Read, Review, Watch, and Listen

1. Read Chapter 1: Criminology as Social Science: Paradigmatic Resiliency and Shift in the 21st Century by J. Michell Miller, University of Texas at San Antonio (M. J. Miller, 2009)

• Print a copy or have access to this reading via a digital device for in class review and discussion.
• You can choose to listen to the article by clicking on the listen icon   located within the navigation bar associated with the article.

This chapter:

a. provides a comprehensive overview of criminology as a social science, tracing its historical development, theoretical and methodological foundations, and future directions.

b. concludes that criminology is a dynamic and evolving discipline that is influenced by multiple disciplines and perspectives, and that criminology has a vital role in informing social policy and criminal justice practice.

c. implies that criminology is a relevant and important field of study that can enhance our knowledge and understanding of crime as a social phenomenon, and that criminology can contribute to the prevention and reduction of crime and the promotion of justice and peace.

2. Read Chapter 2: History and Evolution of Criminology, by Charles F. Wellford, University of Maryland (as cited in M.J. Miller, 2009)

• Print a copy or have access to this reading via a digital device for in class review and discussion.
• You can choose to listen to the article by clicking on the listen icon   located within the navigation bar associated with the article.

This chapter:

a. introduces criminology is the scientific study of the making, breaking, and reaction to lawbreaking.

b. explains that criminology has two main foundations: (1) the interdisciplinary explanation of crime and (2) the analysis of the fairness and effectiveness of the criminal justice system.

c. describes criminology as a separate field of study in the 1930s and 1940s, influenced by the works of Beccaria and Lombroso, among others.
provides an overview of the development of criminological theories of crime and describes various phases of theoretical development: (1) single-factor reductionism, (2) systemic reductionism, (3) multidisciplinary approaches, and (4) interdisciplinary theory.

d. describes the future of criminology and criminal Justice, which has become one of the most dynamic and fastest growing social sciences, with a commitment to scientific rigor, interdisciplinary theory, and improving the criminal justice system.

3. Review Florida State University’s Department of Computer Science, Why Major in Cyber Criminology

Cybercriminology is important for several reasons in today’s digital age:

Rising Cybercrime Rates – With the increasing reliance on technology and the internet, cybercrime has become a significant threat. Cybercriminals engage in activities such as hacking, identity theft, phishing, ransomware attacks, and more. Understanding the motivations, methods, and trends of cybercriminals is crucial for developing effective countermeasures.

Economic Impact – Cybercrimes can cause significant financial losses for individuals, businesses, and governments. These losses include expenses related to data breaches, theft of intellectual property, disruption of services, and costs associated with recovery and prevention. By studying cybercriminology, researchers and practitioners can work to mitigate these economic impacts.

Technological Advancements – As technology continues to evolve, so do the techniques and tools used by cybercriminals. By studying cybercriminology, experts can stay updated on the latest tactics employed by cybercriminals and develop strategies to defend against them.

Privacy and Data Protection – Cybercrimes often involve breaches of personal and sensitive information, leading to concerns about privacy and data protection. Studying cybercriminology helps to identify vulnerabilities in data systems, improve encryption methods, and develop effective security protocols to safeguard sensitive information.

Global Reach – Cybercrimes transcend geographical boundaries. A cybercriminal from one part of the world can easily target victims in another. This global reach makes it necessary to have a comprehensive understanding of cybercriminal behavior, legal frameworks, and international cooperation to combat cybercrime effectively.

Legal and Regulatory Challenges – Cybercrimes can be complex in terms of jurisdiction, making it challenging for law enforcement to apprehend and prosecute cybercriminals. Cybercriminology helps legal experts understand the intricacies of cybercrime and develop relevant laws and regulations to address these challenges.

Public Awareness and Education – Cybercriminology research can contribute to public awareness and education about online threats and how to protect oneself from cybercrime. Educating individuals and organizations about best practices for online safety can help reduce the risk of falling victim to cybercrimes.

Cybersecurity Workforce Development – As cybercrimes become more sophisticated, there’s a growing need for skilled professionals in the field of cybersecurity. Studying cybercriminology can provide insights into the skill sets required to counter cyber threats and contribute to the development of a well-trained cybersecurity workforce.

Policy Formulation – Policymakers need accurate information to develop effective strategies to combat cybercrime. Cybercriminology research provides valuable insights into the motivations and behaviors of cybercriminals, helping policymakers make informed decisions about legislation, regulations, and international cooperation.

Prevention and Detection – Understanding the psychology and techniques of cybercriminals can help in early detection and prevention of cybercrimes. By analyzing patterns of cybercriminal behavior, experts can create better predictive models to identify potential threats before they escalate.

In essence, cybercriminology plays a critical role in enhancing our understanding of cybercriminal behavior, devising effective countermeasures, protecting sensitive information, and maintaining the overall security of digital systems and networks.

4. Watch the Center for Homeland Defense and Security’s Hypothesis 101 (and other Social Science Concepts) [28:50] (also embedded below)

Hypothesis testing is a fundamental concept in statistics that is used to make informed decisions about a population based on a sample of data. It involves the formulation of hypotheses, statistical analysis of sample data, and drawing conclusions about the population. Hypothesis testing helps researchers and analysts determine whether observed effects or differences in data are statistically significant or if they could have occurred by chance.

The process of hypothesis testing typically involves the following steps:

1. 1. 1. Formulate Hypotheses – A key step in the scientific method and is typically associated with experimental research. A hypothesis is a clear, testable statement or prediction about the relationship between two or more variables. It serves as a guide for designing and conducting an experiment to determine whether there is evidence to support or refute the proposed statement.
      2. Null Hypothesis (H0) – This is the default or initial assumption. It states that there is no significant difference, effect, or relationship between variables. It’s often denoted as “H0: parameter = value” or “H0: parameter1 = parameter2.”
      3. Alternative Hypothesis (Ha or H1) – This hypothesis contradicts the null hypothesis and suggests that there is a significant difference, effect, or relationship in the population. It’s what researchers are trying to provide evidence for. It can be one-sided (greater than, less than) or two-sided (not equal to).
      4. Select Significance Level (α) – The significance level, denoted by α (alpha), is the probability of making a Type I error. It represents the threshold for considering evidence strong enough to reject the null hypothesis. Commonly used values are 0.05 or 0.01.
      5. Collect and Analyze Data – Collect a sample of data from the population of interest. Apply appropriate statistical methods to analyze the data. This might involve calculating means, proportions, standard deviations, etc., depending on the nature of the data and the hypothesis being tested.
      6. Calculate Test Statistic – The test statistic is a measure calculated from the sample data that quantifies the extent to which the observed data deviates from what would be expected under the null hypothesis.
      7. Determine the Critical Region – Based on the significance level and the distribution of the test statistic under the null hypothesis, determine the critical region or critical values. This is the region in which, if the test statistic falls, you would reject the null hypothesis.
      8. Make a Decision – Compare the calculated test statistic to the critical values or critical region. If the test statistic falls within the critical region, you reject the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative hypothesis. This suggests that the observed effect is statistically significant. If the test statistic does not fall within the critical region, you fail to reject the null hypothesis. This suggests that the observed effect could be due to random chance.
      9. Draw Conclusions – If the null hypothesis is rejected, it implies that there is evidence to support the alternative hypothesis. However, it doesn’t prove the alternative hypothesis true; it simply indicates that the data provide enough evidence to suggest a difference or relationship. It’s important to note that hypothesis testing provides a formal framework for making decisions based on data. However, it doesn’t provide absolute certainty. There’s always a possibility of making errors (Type I and Type II errors), and the conclusions drawn are subject to the quality of the data, the appropriateness of the statistical methods used, and the assumptions made. Hypothesis testing is widely used in various fields, including science, economics, medicine, social sciences (e.g., criminology), and more, to make informed decisions and draw conclusions based on empirical evidence.

5. Watch Careers in criminology (UniSC University of the Sunshine Coast, Aug. 30, 2021) [also embedded below]

6. Listen to the Module 1 Crime, Deviance, and Criminology as a Social Science summary (Ramirez-Thompson, E.R., 2023)

Discussion Questions

1. How would you define criminology and what are its main objectives?
2. What are some of the major paradigm shifts in criminology and what factors influenced them?
3. What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of different research methods in criminology and how do they relate to theory?
4. What are some of the current and emerging trends and challenges in criminology and how can they be addressed?
5. How can criminology be more interdisciplinary and policy relevant and what are some of the barriers and opportunities for doing so?

Supplemental Resources

• Additional resources are added by the professor if/when they deem relevant to the module.