Module 7 introduces various general assumptions and types of sociological theories before focusing specifically on social structure theories. Social structure theories are a group of sociologically based theories that consider formal and informal economic and social arrangements of society as root causes of crime and deviance. Structure based theories highlight arrangements within society that contribute to the low socioeconomic status of identifiable groups as significant causes of crime. The three main types of social structure theories are: (1) social disorganization theories, (2) general strain theories [GST], and (3) the culture conflict perspectives. Particular attention is given to exploring how social structure theories have influenced social policy, through programs such as the Chicago Area Project (CAP), Mobilization for Youth, and the War on Poverty.

Summary

Social structure theory, also known as social disorganization theory, is a criminological perspective that links crime rates to the characteristics of a community or neighborhood. The theory posits that the structural and social features of a community can influence the prevalence of criminal behavior and deviance within that community. It emphasizes the importance of understanding the social context and environment in which individuals live to comprehend the factors contributing to crime.

Key elements of social structure theory and crime include social disorganization, the ecological perspective, strain and anomie, informal social control, poverty and inequality, neighborhood effects, and collective efficacy.

Social disorganization refers to a breakdown in the social fabric of a community, which can result from factors such as poverty, residential mobility, ethnic heterogeneity, and weak community ties. When a community lacks social cohesion and collective efficacy, it becomes more susceptible to crime and delinquency.

Social structure theory adopts an ecological perspective by viewing communities as ecosystems. It focuses on the spatial distribution of crime and delinquency, examining how crime rates vary across different neighborhoods with distinct social characteristics.

Social structure theory is influenced by strain theory and anomie theory, which suggest that individuals may turn to crime when they experience a disconnection between socially approved goals and the means to achieve those goals. In socially disorganized communities with limited opportunities and resources, the likelihood of criminal coping mechanisms increases.

The theory highlights the importance of informal social control mechanisms in preventing crime. When communities lack strong bonds, mutual trust, and shared norms, informal social control mechanisms that discourage criminal behavior weaken, allowing deviant acts to proliferate.

Social structure theory recognizes the impact of poverty and social inequality on crime rates. Communities with higher levels of poverty and economic disadvantage often experience higher crime rates due to limited access to resources and opportunities for social and economic advancement.

The theory emphasizes the impact of the neighborhood environment on an individual’s behavior. Individuals living in socially disorganized areas may adopt the norms and values prevalent in their immediate surroundings, which can influence their involvement in criminal activities.

Collective efficacy refers to a community’s ability to work together to address common problems and maintain social order. Strong collective efficacy can serve as a protective factor against crime, as communities with high levels of cooperation and social integration are better equipped to prevent criminal behavior.

Social structure theory highlights the significance of the broader social context in shaping crime rates and patterns. By understanding the dynamics of communities and neighborhoods, policymakers and practitioners can develop targeted interventions to address the root causes of crime, such as poverty, lack of opportunities, and weak social ties. Strengthening community bonds, promoting economic development, and implementing community-based crime prevention programs are some of the strategies that can be employed to reduce crime in socially disorganized areas and foster safer and more resilient communities.

Key Terms/Concepts

Anomie
Chicago School
Clifford R. Shaw and Henry D. McKay (1942)
Collective Efficacy
Culture Conflict Theory
Differential Opportunity
Émile Durkheim (1858-1917)
Focal Concerns
General Strain Theory (GST)
Mechanical Solidarity
Middle-Class Measuring Rod
Neutralization Theory
Organic Solidarity
Reaction Formation
Relative Deprivation
Robert E. Park and Ernest W. Burgess (1928)
Robert K. Merton (1910-2003)
Social Disorganization
Social Ecology
Strain Theory
Subculture Theory
Zone in Transition

Read, Review, Watch and Listen

1. Read Chapter 36: Social Disorganization by Jeffrey T. Walker, University of Arkansas, Little Rock

• Print a copy or have access to this reading via a digital device for in class review and discussion.
• You can choose to listen to the article by clicking on the listen icon   located within the navigation bar associated with the article.

2. Read Chapter 38: Strain Theories by Robert Agnew, Emory University

• Print a copy or have access to this reading via a digital device for in class review and discussion.
• You can choose to listen to the article by clicking on the listen icon   located within the navigation bar associated with the article.

3. Review the Chicago Area Project (CAP) website. Identify various initiatives that CAP supports, e.g., community and youth services, prevention and wellness, and workforce development.

a. Environmental criminology is an emerging perspective building on routine activities theory, situational crime prevention, and ecological approaches and emphasizing the importance of location and architectural features in the prevalence of victimization.

b.  Lawrence Sherman’s “hot spots” of crime research found that a small percentage of places in Minneapolis produced half of all calls to the police.

4. Review a category of your choice from The Power of Place The indelible mark of neighborhoods (Vital City Journal, Issue 3). Issue 3 contains several categories from which you will find compelling articles; that is, Setting the Stage, Looking Back, Conversations, etc.

5. Watch How does Merton’s Strain Theory work? Sociology of Crime and Deviance (Precooked Sociology, August 15, 2022) – also embedded below.

a. Strain theory is a sociological concept that was developed by Robert K. Merton in the mid-20th century. It seeks to explain deviant behavior by examining the tension or “strain” individuals experience when they are unable to achieve socially accepted goals through legitimate means. Here’s a summarized explanation of strain theory:

b. Strain theory states that society sets culturally approved goals, such as success, wealth, and status, which are desirable to all members. Society also prescribes legitimate means to achieve these goals, like education and hard work.

c. When individuals are unable to attain these goals through conventional means or feel that the means are blocked for them, they experience a state of “anomie,” or normlessness. This leads to feelings of strain and frustration.

d. In response to strain, individuals may adopt different modes of adaptation, which can be categorized into five types:

1. 1. 1. Conformity: Individuals continue to pursue societal goals through accepted means.
      2. Innovation: People create new, often unconventional methods to achieve societal goals.
      3. Ritualism: Individuals abandon the pursuit of societal goals but continue to adhere rigidly to the means.
      4. Retreatism: People withdraw from both societal goals and conventional means, often turning to substance abuse or deviant lifestyles.
      5. Rebellion: Individuals reject both the established goals and means, striving to replace them with alternative values and goals.

e. Strain theory suggests that deviant behavior can result from the inability to resolve the tension caused by the gap between societal goals and the means available for achieving them. The specific form of deviance depends on the individual’s mode of adaptation.

f. In essence, strain theory helps us understand how social structures and opportunities influence individuals’ choices and the potential for deviant behavior when these structures create a sense of frustration and blocked opportunities for success. It remains a valuable perspective in the field of criminology and sociology for examining the root causes of deviance and crime.

6. Watch Breaking Down How the Broken Windows Theory Promotes Racial Bias (theGrio Politics, January 29, 2022). Consider the unintended consequences of polices that are rooted deeply in criminological teachings – also embedded below.

7. Listen to Gun violence in our region, and who’s working to curb it (WMRA | Randi B. Hagi, November 21, 2022).

a. Thorsten Sellin suggests that the root causes of crime are found in different values about what is acceptable or proper behavior. Consider which norms are in at odds and how differently socialized groups solve problems.

b. Franco Ferracuti and Marvin Wolfgang have proposed the existence of a subculture emphasizing values that support violence and violent behavior.

c. They suggest that for members of these violent subcultures, violence can be a way of life and thus the users do not feel guilty about their aggressive behavior.

8. Listen to Incarcerated teens find escape in music and poems composed with artists (NPR-WEBZ Chicago, Olivia Hampton June 2, 2023)

a. Consider that the likelihood that a juvenile will react to strains with criminal behavior depends on a range of factors influencing the individual’s (1) ability to engage in legal coping, (2) costs of crime, and (3) disposition of crime. As you listen, isolate which aspects of music and the related experience are positive reinforcements that strengthen the ability of the youth to resist engaging in antisocial behavior.

How does Merton’s Strain Theory work? Sociology of Crime and Deviance

Breaking Down How the Broken Windows Theory Promotes Racial Bias

Collective Efficacy

Discussion Questions

1. How did the early studies of urban ecology, plant biology, and crime patterns in Chicago influence the development of social disorganization theory?
2. What were the main findings and limitations of the studies that replicated Shaw and McKay’s analysis of ecological characteristics and juvenile delinquency in different cities?
3. How did the concepts of collective efficacy, social capital, and environmental criminology advance the understanding of the relationship between neighborhoods and crime?
4. What are some of the methodological innovations and substantive issues that need to be addressed to test and improve social disorganization theory in the 21st century?
5. How do strain theories suggest that crime can be prevented or reduced? What are some examples of programs or policies that are based on strain theories?
6. What are the types of strain that are most conducive to crime, according to general strain theory? How do these strains differ from other types of strain that are less likely to result in crime?
7. How do emotions mediate the relationship between strain and crime? What are some emotions that are more likely to lead to crime than others? How do gender differences in emotional reactions to strain affect crime rates?
8. How do strain theories explain group differences in crime, such as gender, age, class, and ethnic–racial differences?

Supplemental Resources

• Say NOPE to social disorganization criminology: the importance of creators in neighborhood social control  (Linning, S.J., Olaghere, A. & Eck, J.E. Say NOPE to social disorganization criminology: the importance of creators in neighborhood social control. Crime Sci 11, 5 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40163-022-00167-y) [last accessed, March. 2024].