Age, Gender, and Crime
Module 11 highlights the age-crime curve, which illustrates a typical pattern where criminal activity peaks during adolescence and declines with age, a phenomenon supported by the curvilinear relationship between age and crime. The analysis extends to aging effects, emphasizing how individuals’ involvement in crime evolves over their lifespan, and maturation reform, which describes the natural decrease in criminal activity as people mature. The study also considers cohort effects, noting how generational experiences influence unique patterns of criminal behavior, and period effects, which show how historical and social contexts impact deviance. Additionally, the concept of the “invisible offender” focuses on the overlooked involvement of females in crime, pressing for adjustments in public policy. Lastly, the importance of temporal ordering in research is underscored, crucial for establishing causal relationships between variables and deepening our understanding of crime’s life-course.
Learning Objectives
After completing this module, you should be able to:
- identify the age-crime curve as it relates to deviance and crime.
- describe aging effects and how criminal involvement evolves over one’s life.
- explain how cohort effects impact what social scientists know about unique patters of criminal involvement compared to other generations.
- recognize how invariance influences what we know about the life-course of deviance and crime.
- define the concept of invisible offender and the implications for public policy involving females.
- describe feminist theories and explain how they provide different lenses to understand gender, crime, and justice.
- identify foundational concepts, emphasizing the historical male-centered focus of criminology and the necessity for gender-based analysis.
- describe the process of what social scientists call maturation reform.
- recognize how period effects influence the nature and extent of deviance and crime.
- explain the curvilinear relationship between age and crime; that is, resilient empirical regularity.
- identify how temporal ordering is an essential feature of understanding the causal relationship between variables.
Summary
The module examines the nexus between two specific correlates of antisocial behavior and crime; that is, age and gender. The nexus between age and crime is a well-documented phenomenon in criminology. Research consistently shows that crime rates vary significantly across different age groups, and age is one of the most reliable predictors of criminal behavior. The relationship between age and crime is complex and can be understood through various criminological theories and developmental perspectives.
Overall, the nexus between age and crime reflects the dynamic nature of criminal behavior across the lifespan. While crime rates are generally highest among young people, most individuals tend to desist from criminal behavior as they age and become more integrated into society through various life transitions, such as employment, marriage, and parenthood. Understanding the relationship between age and crime is essential for developing effective crime prevention and intervention strategies that consider the unique needs and challenges faced by individuals at different stages of their lives.
The nexus between gender and crime is also a significant area of study in criminology. However, studies and result remain largely male-based. Research consistently shows that crime rates and patterns differ between males and females, and gender is one of the most consistent predictors of criminal behavior. Understanding the relationship between gender and crime is essential for addressing gender disparities in the criminal justice system and developing targeted interventions. In addition, a developed understanding of differences in victimization, substance abuse, and mental health will improve the ability of the criminal justice system to respond with more than a one size fits all form of justice.
Overall, the nexus between gender and crime highlights the complex interplay of biological, social, and cultural factors that contribute to gender differences in criminal behavior. Addressing gender disparities in crime requires a comprehensive approach that considers the unique experiences and challenges faced by men and women in different social contexts. Additionally, developing gender-responsive policies and interventions is essential for promoting gender equity and reducing crime rates among both men and women.
Key Takeaways
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Key Terms/Concepts
Click on the following key term/concept to view the definition:
Age-Crime Curve
Aging Effects
Cohort Effects
Feminist Criminology
Intersectionality
Invariance
Invisible Offender
Male-Based Criminology
Maturation Reform
Pathways Perspective
Patriarchy
Period Effects
Resilient Empirical Regularity
Temporal Ordering
Modern Application
The Gendered Nature of Cybercrime
According to various studies, (e.g., UNODC, 2020; Mayra Rosario Fuentes, 2024), the cybercriminal world, much like many other fields, exhibits a significant gender gap, with male participants overwhelmingly outnumbering females. Current research and anecdotal evidence suggest that men dominate in numbers and visibility within both legal tech industries and illegal cyber activities. Traditionally, studies examining gender differences in crime have no included cybercrime. However, a modern criminology must consider how gender profiles in cybercrime reflect broader societal norms and stereotypes which often portray technology and cyber activities as predominantly male domains.
The disparity between men and women is not just a matter of participation but also extends to the perception of capabilities and roles. Women involved in cybercrime often face stereotypes that may either underestimate their technical abilities or typecast them into specific roles such as money mules or social engineering experts. Such perceptions can influence how cybercriminals are pursued by law enforcement and how their threats are assessed by security professionals.
Despite the skewed gender ratio, there are instances of prominent female cybercriminals who have taken on significant roles within this underworld, challenging the typical gender stereotypes. Increasing awareness and changing perceptions could potentially alter the dynamics within cybercriminal communities and law enforcement strategies. Understanding and addressing the gender gap in cybercrime is crucial for developing more effective and equitable cybersecurity policies and practices.
Here are few sources about gender and cybercrime:
- Trend Micro (2024), THE GENDER-EQUAL CYBERCRIMINAL UNDERGROUND (Mayra Rosario Fuentes)
- Gender-Based Interpersonal Crime (UNODC, 2020)
- NBC News, Study Reveals the Age, Nationality, and Motivation of Hackers (Alyssa Newcomb, Sep. 2016)
Read, Review, Watch and Listen
1. Voluntarily Read Chapter 4: Age and Crime by Leana A. Bouffard, Washington State University
- Print a copy or have access to this reading via a digital device for in class review and discussion.
- To support the student’s reading of the article, they can listen to a recorded version of the same. Note that listening to the article is not a substitute for a careful and directed reading of the document
This Chapter:
- explores the age–crime curve, a widely accepted finding in criminology, illustrating that crime rates generally rise in adolescence, peak in late teens, and then decrease throughout adulthood, with variations in timing across different types of crime.
- discusses Hirschi and Gottfredson’s assertion that the age–crime curve is invariant across social and cultural contexts, emphasizing that the form of the curve remains consistent regardless of variables like gender, location, or type of offense.
- examines debates around the criminal careers perspective, focusing on concepts like onset, persistence, and desistance in crime, and highlights that individual offending trajectories often differ from the aggregate age–crime curve.
- contrasts propensity theories, which attribute crime to stable individual traits like low self-control, with developmental and life-course theories that link age-related changes in social factors, like peer influence and social bonds, to variations in criminal behavior over time.
- considers the implications of the age–crime relationship for criminal justice policy, such as the criticism of “three-strikes” laws, which may incarcerate individuals past their peak offending age, limiting their effectiveness in reducing crime.
2. Read Chapter 10: Gender and Crime by Janet T. Davidson, Chaminade University of Honolulu and Meda Chesney-Lind, University of Hawaii
- Print a copy or have access to this reading via a digital device for in class review and discussion.
- To support the student’s reading of the article, they can listen to a recorded version of the same. Note that listening to the article is not a substitute for a careful and directed reading of the document.
This Chapter:
- examines the male-centered foundation of criminology, highlighting how traditional theories and interventions have often overlooked the unique pathways and challenges faced by female offenders.
- discusses the contributions of feminist criminology, emphasizing that gender-specific factors, such as histories of abuse and economic marginalization, are critical for understanding female criminality and should inform justice practices and policies.
- introduces the pathways perspective, which links women’s victimization and trauma to their criminal behavior, suggesting that female offenders often enter the justice system due to survival crimes connected to their life circumstances.
- addresses gender disparities in the criminal justice system, noting that policies designed with male offenders in mind often fail to meet the needs of female offenders, resulting in inequitable treatment and outcomes.
- highlights the rapid growth of female incarceration, linking it to policies like the war on drugs, which disproportionately impact women and have lasting effects on their families, especially in terms of child custody and community reintegration challenges.
NOTE: Check with the Professor to determine the assignment of a GoReact activity.
3. Review The Age Crime Curve Perspectives in Crime: Is there a relationship between age and crime? (Pinkerton, last accessed, July 2023).
4. Read the AP article, Prison work assignments used to lure and rape female inmates. Guards sometimes walk free (MARGIE MASON and ROBIN MCDOWELL, October 31, 2024).
5. Review The Sentencing Project’s Fact Sheet: Incarcerated Women and Girls (Monazzam, N. and Budd, K. M., April 3, 2023) [last accessed July 2023].
6. Review the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention’s Statistical Briefing Book Juvenile Population Characteristics page (OJJDP, last accessed, July 2023).
7. Review the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention’s Statistical Briefing Book Law Enforcement & Juvenile Crime page (OJJDP, last accessed July, 20223).
a. Review all data within the following categories: (1) Juvenile Arrests, (2) Juvenile Arrest Rate Trends, (3) Customizable Arrest Tables, and (4) Age-Specific Arrest Rate Trends.
8. Watch Overview of the Youth and the Juvenile Justice System: 2022 National Report (OJJDP, 2022).
9. Listen to a Women & Crime podcast of your choice (last accessed, July 2023).
a. The podcast series provides an opportunity to learn details about various female offenders.
To access the PPT file, click HERE. Note that files are updated regularly and as such might change in content and appearance.
Read, Review, Watch and Listen to all listed materials by the due date listed within the course LMS (i.e., Blackboard) site.
Contact the professor with any course-related questions
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ACTIVITY – Research and the Gendered Nature of Cybercrime
Stop!!!
Students should review the course syllabus to determine the assignment of this activity.
This is a copy of the module’s activity that students find within Blackboard. For that reason, refer to the Activities page to submit your work for review.
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to provoke thought and discussion on the complexities of gender and crime within the context of a modern era. Focus is placed on the matter of cyber-crime and significant gender-gap, with male participants and perpetrators overwhelmingly outnumbering females.
Instructions
- Review the Module 11 Modern Application via Pressbooks.
- Read Mayra Rosario Fuentes’ THE GENDER-EQUAL CYBERCRIMINAL UNDERGROUND (Trend Micro).
- Read Barracuda’s Cybercrime and gender equality: Women comprise a surprisingly large share of cybercriminals (Phil Muncaster, Mar. 2023).
Answer the following questions:
- In what ways does gender bias in criminal investigations potentially affect the accuracy and outcome of cybercrime cases?
- How has the historical lack of focus on female criminality impacted the treatment and understanding of female offenders in the criminal justice system?
- How do factors like race and class intersect with gender to affect women’s experiences of crime and victimization?
Key Terms/Concepts
Feminist Criminology – A field of study that challenges traditional male-based criminology, focusing on female offenders and questioning the applicability of male-based theories to explain female criminality.
Intersectionality – A concept within third-wave feminism that examines how overlapping social identities, including gender, race, and class, affect individuals’ experiences and opportunities.
Pathways Perspective – A theoretical framework that examines the unique life experiences and factors that lead women to commit crimes, emphasizing the role of gender-related risk factors.
Patriarchy – A social system characterized by male dominance and privilege, which feminist criminologists argue shapes opportunities and social participation in ways that disadvantage women.
Discussion Questions
- How do criminological theories explain the decline in criminal behavior as individuals age? What specific life transitions are most influential in reducing crime among older age groups?
- Considering that age is one of the most reliable predictors of criminal behavior, how can policymakers utilize this information to develop age-specific crime prevention strategies?
- How do crime rates and patterns differ between males and females, and what implications does this have for the criminal justice system in terms of equitable treatment and intervention?
- In what ways has the focus on male-based studies in criminology impacted the understanding and treatment of female offenders? What steps can be taken to balance this research bias?
- Discuss the roles of biological, social, and cultural factors in shaping the criminal behavior of men and women. How can understanding these factors lead to more effective crime prevention?
- What are some examples of gender-responsive policies that could address the disparities in crime rates between men and women? How can these policies promote gender equity within the criminal justice system?
Supplemental Resources
- ABC News’, Former female inmates speak about widespread sexual abuse by prison staff (Quinn Owen, Dec. 2022) [last accessed, October 2023]
- Violence Against Women (VAW) Women’s Experience of Abuse as a Risk Factor for Incarceration: A Research Update (Sue Osthoff, July 2015).
- The Age-Crime Curve Perspectives in Crime: Is there a relationship between age and crime? (Pinkerrton, 2023)
- ASU Center for Problem-Oriented Policing Juvenile Runaways: The Problem of Juvenile Runaways (Guide No. 37, 2006)
References
- Bouffard, L. A. (2009). Age and Crime. In J. M. Miller (Ed.), 21st Century Reference Series. 21st Century Criminology: A Reference Handbook (Vol. 1, pp. 28-35). SAGE Reference. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3201600014/GVRL?u=cod_lrc&sid=bookmark-GVRL&xid=bf05c57a
- Davidson, J. T., & Chesney-Lind, M. (2009). Gender and Crime. In J. M. Miller (Ed.), 21st Century Reference Series. 21st Century Criminology: A Reference Handbook (Vol. 1, pp. 76-84). SAGE Reference. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3201600020/GVRL?u=cod_lrc&sid=bookmark-GVRL&xid=0e29dfc9
Also known as the age-crime relationship or the age-crime pattern, is a significant concept in criminology that describes the relationship between a person's age and their involvement in criminal activities. This curve illustrates the fluctuating rates of criminal behavior based on age and has been widely observed and studied in various societies and historical periods.
Refers to the changes in criminal behavior and patterns that occur as individuals grow older. These aging effects are crucial to understanding how criminal involvement evolves over the course of a person's life.
In criminology studies refer to the impact of a specific group of individuals, often born during the same time, sharing common experiences or historical events that influence their criminal behavior. These cohorts may display unique patterns of criminal involvement compared to individuals from different generations, and studying cohort effects can help criminologists understand how historical, social, and cultural factors shape criminality.
A branch of criminology that examines crime, criminal behavior, and the criminal justice system through a gendered lens, with a particular focus on the experiences and perspectives of women. It emerged in the 1970s as part of the larger feminist movement, aiming to address the historical neglect of gender issues in traditional criminology and to challenge the male-centric assumptions and biases in the study of crime.
A concept within third-wave feminism that examines how overlapping social identities, including gender, race, and class, affect individuals’ experiences and opportunities.
Refers to the quality or state of being unchanging or constant in a specific context or situation. It is a concept used in various fields, including mathematics, physics, statistics, and social sciences, to describe properties, relationships, or principles that remain consistent and unaffected by certain transformations, variations, or conditions.
A way to describe the context of studying females and crime. It refers to the idea that female offenders are often overlooked or underestimated in criminological research and the criminal justice system. It suggests that female involvement in criminal activities may be less visible, less recognized, or less studied compared to male offenders.
Historically, criminology has predominantly focused on male offenders due to higher overall crime rates among men. As a result, female criminal behavior has received comparatively less attention, leading to an incomplete understanding of the factors contributing to female criminality.
Refers to the historical focus of criminology on male scholars seeking to explain the criminality of men, often excluding female offenders from research and analysis.
A type of biological explanation that refers to the process of maturing.
A theoretical framework that examines the unique life experiences and factors that lead women to commit crimes, emphasizing the role of gender-related risk factors.
A social system characterized by male dominance and privilege, which feminist criminologists argue shapes opportunities and social participation in ways that disadvantage women.
Refers to the impact or influence of living within a particular historical period.
A way to describe the curvilinear relationship between age and crime.
Also known as temporal precedence or time order, is a fundamental concept in research and science that refers to the chronological sequence of events or occurrences. It asserts that there is a clear cause-and-effect relationship between two variables, with one variable (the cause) preceding the other variable (the effect) in time.
To establish causal relationships between variables, temporal ordering is essential. For a cause to truly lead to an effect, the cause must happen before the effect. This principle is a crucial criterion in experimental and quasi-experimental research designs, where researchers manipulate an independent variable (the cause) to observe its impact on a dependent variable (the effect) while ensuring that the cause precedes the effect in time.
