SECTION III – CORRELATES OF CRIME
Age, Gender, and Crime
Module 11 explores how age and gender influence patterns of criminal behavior throughout life. It starts with the age-crime curve, a well-established finding in criminology that shows criminal activity usually rises during adolescence, reaches a peak in the late teens, and gradually declines as individuals move into adulthood. This pattern, known as a curvilinear relationship between age and crime, remains one of the most consistent empirical patterns in criminological research.
The module examines how aging effects reflect natural changes in individual behavior over time, while cohort effects demonstrate how shared generational experiences shape distinct patterns of offending. Period effects are also discussed, highlighting how broader social and historical contexts such as economic shifts or cultural change can influence levels of deviance within a society. Maturation reform is explained as the natural process through which individuals stop offending as they take on adult responsibilities and strengthen social bonds through work, family, and community involvement.
The module further explores gender and crime, highlighting the concept of the invisible offender and how women’s involvement in crime has often been overlooked or misrepresented in traditional criminological research. This prompts an examination of feminist perspectives, which advocate for gender-responsive policies and justice reforms that recognize trauma, inequality, and the specific pathways that influence women’s experiences with crime and victimization.
Finally, students learn about the principle of temporal ordering, a key part of criminological research design. Knowing which factors happen first in the sequence of events helps researchers find true causes of criminal behavior and assess how well policy interventions work.
Together, these topics promote a thorough understanding of the crime’s life course, how it develops, evolves, and eventually declines across various ages, social settings, and gendered experiences.
Learning Objectives
After completing this module, you should be able to:
- identify the age-crime curve as it relates to deviance and crime.
- describe aging effects and how criminal involvement evolves over one’s life.
- explain how cohort effects impact what social scientists know about unique patters of criminal involvement compared to other generations.
- recognize how invariance influences what we know about the life-course of deviance and crime.
- define the concept of invisible offender and the implications for public policy involving females.
- describe feminist theories and explain how they provide different lenses to understand gender, crime, and justice.
- identify foundational concepts, emphasizing the historical male-centered focus of criminology and the necessity for gender-based analysis.
- describe the process of what social scientists call maturation reform.
- recognize how period effects influence the nature and extent of deviance and crime.
- explain the curvilinear relationship between age and crime; that is, resilient empirical regularity.
- identify how temporal ordering is an essential feature of understanding the causal relationship between variables.
Summary
This module explores how two key factors, age and gender, influence patterns of criminal involvement throughout a person’s life. The lesson starts with the age-crime curve, a fundamental idea in criminology showing that criminal activity usually increases quickly during adolescence, peaks in the late teens, and then gradually decreases into adulthood. This pattern, known as a consistent empirical regularity, helps explain why crime prevention and intervention efforts often target youth and young adults.
In connection with Chapter 4: Age and Crime by Leana Bouffard, the module explores various explanations for why crime peaks during adolescence. These include aging effects, which describe how people change over time; cohort effects, which show how shared generational experiences influence criminal behavior; and period effects, which reflect how broader historical or social events impact crime rates. Hirschi and Gottfredson’s idea that the curve is consistent across cultures is introduced alongside contrasting theories that emphasize developmental and life-course factors, such as peer influence, attachment, and social bonds. The OJJDP’s Statistical Briefing Book provides supporting data, allowing students to examine real arrest trends and see how these effects manifest among different age groups. The inclusion of the Hidden Brain episode “Parents: Keep Out!” and “On the Knife’s Edge” adds a neurodevelopmental perspective, demonstrating how brain maturity and supervision influence adolescents’ decision-making and risk-taking behaviors. Together, these sources deepen understanding of maturation reform and desistance—the natural process of aging out of crime.
The module then shifts to the relationship between gender and crime, using Chapter 10: Gender and Crime by Janet Davidson and Meda Chesney-Lind to emphasize how criminology has traditionally focused on male offenders. The reading introduces feminist criminology and intersectionality, explaining how factors like poverty, trauma, and gendered social expectations shape pathways into crime. Students learn about the concept of the invisible offender—women whose crimes and victimization have often been overlooked or minimized in research and policy. The Sentencing Project’s Fact Sheet and the Council on Criminal Justice’s Women’s Justice report further highlight gender disparities in incarceration, while the Associated Press article on the abuse of female inmates reveals systemic failures within correctional institutions.
The Women & Crime podcast highlights these insights through personal stories and case studies of female offenders. When paired with the policy-focused TED Talk by Thomas Abt, which explains how violence tends to cluster in cities and what strategies reduce it, students can connect theory to practical implications for gender-sensitive and age-appropriate policy reforms. The OJJDP’s Overview of the Youth and the Juvenile Justice System offers an additional framework for assessing juvenile offenses, stressing the significance of early intervention and data-informed decisions.
Taken together, the readings, data reviews, and multimedia elements help students understand the life course of deviance and crime as dynamic, context-dependent, and heavily influenced by social structures. Module 11 encourages students to think critically about how both developmental stages and gendered experiences shape criminal trajectories, victimization, and justice outcomes. By the end of this module, students should be able to interpret the age-crime curve, explain desistance and maturation reform, evaluate the impacts of cohort and period influences, and articulate the need for gender-responsive approaches in criminological theory and criminal justice practice.
| Theory / Perspective | Key Scholars | Assigned Resources | Policy Connections |
|---|---|---|---|
| Age-Crime Curve | Travis Hirschi; Michael Gottfredson; Leana A. Bouffard | Chapter 4 – Age and Crime (Bouffard, Washington State University); Pinkerton review “The Age Crime Curve Perspectives in Crime” | Informs youth-based prevention programs and diversion policies. Suggests that punitive laws like three-strikes legislation may over-incarcerate offenders who have aged out of peak offending years. |
| Invariance Hypothesis | Hirschi; Gottfredson | Chapter 4 – Age and Crime (Bouffard) | Supports the development of universal prevention frameworks that apply across cultures and contexts. Encourages policymakers to design interventions targeting developmental rather than situational differences. |
| Criminal Careers and Desistance | Terrie Moffitt; Robert Sampson; John Laub | Chapter 4 – Age and Crime (Bouffard); OJJDP Statistical Briefing Book on Juvenile Arrest Rate Trends | Reinforces life-course–based rehabilitation efforts. Guides programs that emphasize education, employment, and family stability as turning points away from criminal behavior. |
| Maturation Reform | Sheldon and Eleanor Glueck; Sampson and Laub | Chapter 4 – Age and Crime (Bouffard); OJJDP Youth and Juvenile Justice System Report (2022); Hidden Brain podcast “Parents: Keep Out!” | Encourages rehabilitation policies and community reintegration strategies that recognize desistance as a normal developmental process. |
| Developmental and Life-Course Perspectives | Terrie Moffitt; Robert Sampson; John Laub | Chapter 4 – Age and Crime (Bouffard); Hidden Brain podcast “On the Knife’s Edge” | Promotes early-intervention and mentoring programs that target adolescents most at risk of persistent offending through social support and decision-making skills. |
| Feminist Criminology | Meda Chesney-Lind; Janet T. Davidson | Chapter 10 – Gender and Crime (Davidson and Chesney-Lind); Women & Crime podcast series | Calls for gender-responsive correctional policies addressing trauma, victimization, and caregiving responsibilities of women. |
| Invisible Offender | Meda Chesney-Lind; Carol Smart | Chapter 10 – Gender and Crime (Davidson and Chesney-Lind); AP article “Prison Work Assignments Used to Lure and Rape Female Inmates” | Highlights the need for oversight and protection for female inmates. Encourages policy reform addressing workplace abuse and institutional accountability in prisons. |
| Pathways Perspective | Kathleen Daly; Meda Chesney-Lind | Chapter 10 – Gender and Crime (Davidson and Chesney-Lind); Council on Criminal Justice report “Women’s Justice” (2024) | Shapes trauma-informed and treatment-oriented correctional policies. Advocates for diversion and reentry programs that account for women’s victimization histories. |
| Intersectionality | Kimberlé Crenshaw | Chapter 10 – Gender and Crime (Davidson and Chesney-Lind); Sentencing Project Fact Sheet “Incarcerated Women and Girls” (2023) | Informs equitable justice reform efforts by recognizing how gender, race, and class combine to affect arrest, sentencing, and incarceration outcomes. |
| Gender Disparities in Sentencing | Janet T. Davidson; Meda Chesney-Lind | Chapter 10 – Gender and Crime (Davidson and Chesney-Lind); Sentencing Project Fact Sheet (2023); AP article | Highlights inequities in sentencing and correctional treatment. Encourages evaluation of sentencing laws to ensure fairness and gender responsiveness. |
| Violence Concentration and Urban Risk | Thomas Abt | TED Talk “Why Violence Clusters in Cities — and How to Reduce It” (2020) | Guides community-level strategies focusing on reducing concentrated violence among youth populations through targeted prevention initiatives. |
| Juvenile Justice and Prevention | Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) | OJJDP Statistical Briefing Book on Juvenile Population Characteristics and Law Enforcement Data (2023) | Provides empirical foundation for juvenile justice reform and data-driven prevention policies focused on high-risk age groups. |
| Women’s Justice and Correctional Reform | Council on Criminal Justice (CCJ); Meda Chesney-Lind | Council on Criminal Justice report “Women’s Justice” (2024); Women & Crime podcast | Promotes reforms that address the growth of female incarceration, reentry challenges, and family-based impacts of justice involvement. |
Key Takeaways
Click on the > to expand the related statement.
Key Terms/Concepts
Click on the following key term/concept to view the definition:
Age-Crime Curve
Age-Graded Theory of Informal Social Control
Aging Effects
Cohort Effects
Desistance
Desistance Age
Feminist Criminology
Gender-Responsive Policy
Intersectionality
Invariance
Invisible Offender
Life Course Criminology
Male-Based Criminology
Maturation Reform
Onset
Pathways Perspective
Patriarchy
Period Effects
Persistence
Resilient Empirical Regularity
Temporal Ordering
Trajectory
Modern Application
The Gendered Nature of Cybercrime
According to various studies, (e.g., UNODC, 2020; Mayra Rosario Fuentes, 2024), the cybercriminal world, like many other fields, shows a significant gender gap, with males vastly outnumbering females. Current research and anecdotal evidence indicate that men dominate both in legal tech industries and illegal cyber activities. Traditionally, studies on gender differences in crime have not included cybercrime. However, modern criminology must consider how gender profiles in cybercrime reflect broader societal norms and stereotypes, which often portray technology and cyber activities as mostly male domains.
The gap between men and women isn’t just about participation; it also includes how their abilities and roles are viewed. Women involved in cybercrime often face stereotypes that may underestimate their technical skills or typecast them into specific roles like money mules or social engineering experts. These perceptions can affect law enforcement’s pursuit of cybercriminals and how security professionals evaluate threats.
Despite the skewed gender ratio, there are notable female cybercriminals who have taken on significant roles within this underground world, challenging common gender stereotypes. Increasing awareness and shifting perceptions could potentially change the dynamics within cybercriminal groups and law enforcement approaches. Understanding and closing the gender gap in cybercrime is essential for creating more effective and fair cybersecurity policies and practices.
Here are few sources about gender and cybercrime:
- Trend Micro (2024), THE GENDER-EQUAL CYBERCRIMINAL UNDERGROUND (Mayra Rosario Fuentes)
- Gender-Based Interpersonal Crime (UNODC, 2020)
- NBC News, Study Reveals the Age, Nationality, and Motivation of Hackers (Alyssa Newcomb, Sep. 2016)
Read, Review, Watch and Listen
1. Read Chapter 4: Age and Crime by Leana A. Bouffard, Washington State University
- Print a copy or have access to this reading via a digital device for in class review and discussion.
- To support the student’s reading of the article, they can listen to a recorded version of the same. Note that listening to the article is not a substitute for a careful and directed reading of the document
This Chapter:
- explores the age–crime curve, a widely accepted finding in criminology, illustrating that crime rates generally rise in adolescence, peak in late teens, and then decrease throughout adulthood, with variations in timing across different types of crime.
- discusses Hirschi and Gottfredson’s assertion that the age–crime curve is invariant across social and cultural contexts, emphasizing that the form of the curve remains consistent regardless of variables like gender, location, or type of offense.
- examines debates around the criminal careers perspective, focusing on concepts like onset, persistence, and desistance in crime, and highlights that individual offending trajectories often differ from the aggregate age–crime curve.
- contrasts propensity theories, which attribute crime to stable individual traits like low self-control, with developmental and life-course theories that link age-related changes in social factors, like peer influence and social bonds, to variations in criminal behavior over time.
- considers the implications of the age–crime relationship for criminal justice policy, such as the criticism of “three-strikes” laws, which may incarcerate individuals past their peak offending age, limiting their effectiveness in reducing crime.
2. Read Chapter 10: Gender and Crime by Janet T. Davidson, Chaminade University of Honolulu and Meda Chesney-Lind, University of Hawaii
- Print a copy or have access to this reading via a digital device for in class review and discussion.
- To support the student’s reading of the article, they can listen to a recorded version of the same. Note that listening to the article is not a substitute for a careful and directed reading of the document.
This Chapter:
- examines the male-centered foundation of criminology, highlighting how traditional theories and interventions have often overlooked the unique pathways and challenges faced by female offenders.
- discusses the contributions of feminist criminology, emphasizing that gender-specific factors, such as histories of abuse and economic marginalization, are critical for understanding female criminality and should inform justice practices and policies.
- introduces the pathways perspective, which links women’s victimization and trauma to their criminal behavior, suggesting that female offenders often enter the justice system due to survival crimes connected to their life circumstances.
- addresses gender disparities in the criminal justice system, noting that policies designed with male offenders in mind often fail to meet the needs of female offenders, resulting in inequitable treatment and outcomes.
- highlights the rapid growth of female incarceration, linking it to policies like the war on drugs, which disproportionately impact women and have lasting effects on their families, especially in terms of child custody and community reintegration challenges.
NOTE: Check with the Professor to determine the assignment of a GoReact activity.
3. Review The Age Crime Curve Perspectives in Crime: Is there a relationship between age and crime? (Pinkerton, last accessed, July 2023).
4. Read the AP article, Prison work assignments used to lure and rape female inmates. Guards sometimes walk free (MARGIE MASON and ROBIN MCDOWELL, October 31, 2024).
5. Review The Sentencing Project’s Fact Sheet: Incarcerated Women and Girls (Monazzam, N. and Budd, K. M., April 3, 2023) [last accessed July 2023].
6. Review the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention’s Statistical Briefing Book Juvenile Population Characteristics page (OJJDP, last accessed, July 2023).
7. Review the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention’s Statistical Briefing Book Law Enforcement & Juvenile Crime page (OJJDP, last accessed July, 20223).
a. Review all data within the following categories: (1) Juvenile Arrests, (2) Juvenile Arrest Rate Trends, (3) Customizable Arrest Tables, and (4) Age-Specific Arrest Rate Trends.
8. Review Women’s Justice A Preliminary Assessment of Women in the Criminal Justice System (Council on Criminal Justice [CCJ], July 2024).
9. Watch Overview of the Youth and the Juvenile Justice System: 2022 National Report (OJJDP, 2022).
10. Watch Why violence clusters in cities — and how to reduce it (Thomas Abt | TEDMED 2020, March 2020) [also embedded below].
11. Listen to a Women & Crime podcast of your choice (last accessed, July 2023).
a. The podcast series provides an opportunity to learn details about various female offenders.
12. Listen to On The Knife’s Edge (January 6, 2020).
a. Focuses on teens in Chicago and interventions teaching impulse-control and decision-making in high-risk environments.
13. Listen to Parents: Keep Out! (May 27, 2025).
a. Explores how modern changes in supervision and activity affect children and adolescents’ opportunities for exploration vs. risk, which ties into the age-crime curve and maturation reform topics.
To access the PPT file, click HERE. Note that files are updated regularly and as such might change in content and appearance.
Read, Review, Watch and Listen to all listed materials by the due date listed within the course LMS (i.e., Blackboard) site.
Contact the professor with any course-related questions
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ACTIVITY – Breaking the Code: Gender Inequality and Cybercrime Participation
Stop!!!
Students should review the course syllabus to determine the assignment of this activity.
This is a copy of the module’s activity that students find within Blackboard. For that reason, refer to the Activities page to submit your work for review.
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to spark thought and discussion about the complexities of gender and crime in a modern context. It focuses on cybercrime and the notable gender gap, with male participants and perpetrators largely outnumbering females.
Instructions
- Review the Module 11 Modern Application via Pressbooks.
- Read Mayra Rosario Fuentes’ THE GENDER-EQUAL CYBERCRIMINAL UNDERGROUND (Trend Micro).
- Read Barracuda’s Cybercrime and gender equality: Women comprise a surprisingly large share of cybercriminals (Phil Muncaster, Mar. 2023).
- Read the attached main findings on gender inclusion, opportunities, best practices, and policy recommendations from the Women in Cyber IGCC 2023 – Outcome Report (INTERPOL, 2023).
Answer the following questions:
- According to Barracuda’s research, women now make up a larger portion of cybercriminals than many believe. How does this finding challenge stereotypes about technology, risk-taking, and criminal behavior?
- Consider the influence of patriarchy and inequality in online spaces. How might these same power structures that affect offline gender roles also impact participation in or exclusion from cybercrime networks?
- To what extent do you believe anonymity online decreases or strengthens gender barriers in criminal activity?
- How societal expectations of women’s behavior and technological skills influence perceptions of female cybercriminals?
Key Terms/Concepts
Anonymity Effect – The psychological and social influence of anonymity online can both reduce and reinforce gender disparities.
Capability Approach – A policy framework emphasizing the enhancement of individual capacities and opportunities.
Digital Gender Divide – The gap between men and women in access to technology, digital literacy, and participation in online spaces.
Gender Gap – The disparity between male and female participation in a particular domain often reflects unequal access, representation, or opportunity.
Feminist Criminology – A field of study that challenges traditional male-based criminology, focusing on female offenders and questioning the applicability of male-based theories to explain female criminality.
Intersectionality – A concept within third-wave feminism that examines how overlapping social identities, including gender, race, and class, affect individuals’ experiences and opportunities.
Pathways Perspective – A theoretical framework that examines the unique life experiences and factors that lead women to commit crimes, emphasizing the role of gender-related risk factors.
Patriarchy – A social system characterized by male dominance and privilege, which feminist criminologists argue shapes opportunities and social participation in ways that disadvantage women.
Discussion Questions
- How do criminological theories explain the decline in criminal behavior as individuals age? What specific life transitions are most influential in reducing crime among older age groups?
- Considering that age is one of the most reliable predictors of criminal behavior, how can policymakers utilize this information to develop age-specific crime prevention strategies?
- How do crime rates and patterns differ between males and females, and what implications does this have for the criminal justice system in terms of equitable treatment and intervention?
- In what ways has the focus on male-based studies in criminology impacted the understanding and treatment of female offenders? What steps can be taken to balance this research bias?
- Discuss the roles of biological, social, and cultural factors in shaping the criminal behavior of men and women. How can understanding these factors lead to more effective crime prevention?
- What are some examples of gender-responsive policies that could address the disparities in crime rates between men and women? How can these policies promote gender equity within the criminal justice system?
Supplemental Resources
- ABC News’, Former female inmates speak about widespread sexual abuse by prison staff (Quinn Owen, Dec. 2022) [last accessed, October 2023]
- Violence Against Women (VAW) Women’s Experience of Abuse as a Risk Factor for Incarceration: A Research Update (Sue Osthoff, July 2015).
- The Age-Crime Curve Perspectives in Crime: Is there a relationship between age and crime? (Pinkerrton, 2023)
- ASU Center for Problem-Oriented Policing Juvenile Runaways: The Problem of Juvenile Runaways (Guide No. 37, 2006)
References
- Bouffard, L. A. (2009). Age and Crime. In J. M. Miller (Ed.), 21st Century Reference Series. 21st Century Criminology: A Reference Handbook (Vol. 1, pp. 28-35). SAGE Reference. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3201600014/GVRL?u=cod_lrc&sid=bookmark-GVRL&xid=bf05c57a
- Davidson, J. T., & Chesney-Lind, M. (2009). Gender and Crime. In J. M. Miller (Ed.), 21st Century Reference Series. 21st Century Criminology: A Reference Handbook (Vol. 1, pp. 76-84). SAGE Reference. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3201600020/GVRL?u=cod_lrc&sid=bookmark-GVRL&xid=0e29dfc9
Also known as the age-crime relationship or the age-crime pattern, is a significant concept in criminology that describes the relationship between a person's age and their involvement in criminal activities. This curve illustrates the fluctuating rates of criminal behavior based on age and has been widely observed and studied in various societies and historical periods.
A life-course theory proposed by Sampson and Laub suggests that social bonds formed in adulthood—such as marriage, employment, and military service—can lead individuals to desist from crime.
Refers to the changes in criminal behavior and patterns that occur as individuals grow older. These aging effects are crucial to understanding how criminal involvement evolves over the course of a person's life.
In criminology studies refer to the impact of a specific group of individuals, often born during the same time, sharing common experiences or historical events that influence their criminal behavior. These cohorts may display unique patterns of criminal involvement compared to individuals from different generations, and studying cohort effects can help criminologists understand how historical, social, and cultural factors shape criminality.
A key concept to the life course perspective and describes a reduction in offending; that is, deceleration, specialization, and deescalation. Deceleration is a slowing down in the frequency of offending. Specialization is a slowing down in the variety of offending. Deescalation is a slowing down in the seriousness of the offenses committed.
The approximate period when most offenders naturally cease criminal behavior, typically associated with transitions to adulthood.
A branch of criminology that examines crime, criminal behavior, and the criminal justice system through a gendered lens, with a particular focus on the experiences and perspectives of women. It emerged in the 1970s as part of the larger feminist movement, aiming to address the historical neglect of gender issues in traditional criminology and to challenge the male-centric assumptions and biases in the study of crime.
Criminal justice strategies that account for gender-specific needs, circumstances, and pathways into offending.
A concept within third-wave feminism that examines how overlapping social identities, including gender, race, and class, affect individuals’ experiences and opportunities.
Refers to the quality or state of being unchanging or constant in a specific context or situation. It is a concept used in various fields, including mathematics, physics, statistics, and social sciences, to describe properties, relationships, or principles that remain consistent and unaffected by certain transformations, variations, or conditions.
A way to describe the context of studying females and crime. It refers to the idea that female offenders are often overlooked or underestimated in criminological research and the criminal justice system. It suggests that female involvement in criminal activities may be less visible, less recognized, or less studied compared to male offenders.
Historically, criminology has predominantly focused on male offenders due to higher overall crime rates among men. As a result, female criminal behavior has received comparatively less attention, leading to an incomplete understanding of the factors contributing to female criminality.
A criminological approach focused on understanding the development of criminal behavior over an individual’s lifespan.
Refers to the historical focus of criminology on male scholars seeking to explain the criminality of men, often excluding female offenders from research and analysis.
A type of biological explanation that refers to the process of maturing.
Refers to the initiation of criminal behavior.
A theoretical framework that examines the unique life experiences and factors that lead women to commit crimes, emphasizing the role of gender-related risk factors.
A social system characterized by male dominance and privilege, which feminist criminologists argue shapes opportunities and social participation in ways that disadvantage women.
Refers to the impact or influence of living within a particular historical period.
Refers to the continuation or duration of an offending career.
A way to describe the curvilinear relationship between age and crime.
Also known as temporal precedence or time order, is a fundamental concept in research and science that refers to the chronological sequence of events or occurrences. It asserts that there is a clear cause-and-effect relationship between two variables, with one variable (the cause) preceding the other variable (the effect) in time.
To establish causal relationships between variables, temporal ordering is essential. For a cause to truly lead to an effect, the cause must happen before the effect. This principle is a crucial criterion in experimental and quasi-experimental research designs, where researchers manipulate an independent variable (the cause) to observe its impact on a dependent variable (the effect) while ensuring that the cause precedes the effect in time.
A long-term pattern or pathway of behavior over the life-course, often referring to patterns of offending.
