Module 10 examines the work of Glen Elder, John Laub, Robert J. Sampson, and Terri Moffitt. Their work collectively is called the life-course perspective. Life-course theory focuses on the dimensions of criminal offending and the development of criminal careers as the result of criminogenic influences affecting individuals over the entire life course.  Key concepts include activation, aggravation, and desistance. Glen Elder’s key principles provide a concise summary of life course theory. John Laub and Robert J. Sampson’s age-graded theory of informal social control emphasizes two key turning points (marriage and job stability) that seem to be particularly important in reducing the frequency of offending in later life. They also stress the importance of social capital. Terrie Moffitt’s dual taxonomic theory of criminality helps explain the observation that most antisocial children do not become adult criminals. Her two-path biosocial theory argues that neuropsychological deficits combined with poverty and family dysfunction explains why some people display rather constant patterns of behavior throughout life, while others go through limited periods with high probabilities of offending.

Summary

Life-course theory, or the life-course perspective, is a framework in sociology and developmental psychology that examines how individual development and behavior unfold across a lifespan. It emphasizes the impact of interconnected life events, transitions, and experiences on a person’s life path. Life-course criminology examines how criminal behavior evolves over an individual’s lifespan, highlighting key phases like onset, persistence, and desistance. The theory is grounded in the well-documented age-crime relationship, where criminal activity peaks in late adolescence and typically declines in early adulthood. This approach considers the “criminal career,” analyzing the sequence of crimes an individual commits, including the age they begin offending, patterns of persistence, and eventual desistance.

The theory suggests that early advantages, like quality education and stable family support, often lead to further benefits, while early disadvantages can make individuals more vulnerable to additional setbacks. Key life events—such as marriage, parenthood, education, and job changes—are seen as potential turning points that can significantly alter life trajectories.

Life-course criminology is primarily based on work using a longitudinal method, which involved the use of cohort samples. These studies identified small groups of chronic offenders responsible for a disproportionately high volume of crimes, a finding that propelled further research into risk and protective factors across life stages. Key life events, such as marriage or steady employment, can serve as turning points that reduce criminal activity, while factors like incarceration may increase the likelihood of continued offending.

The field integrates insights from sociology and psychology, especially the life-course paradigm, which emphasizes that life events and social bonds can redirect behavioral trajectories. Developmental and life-course (DLC) theories within criminology focus on three core aspects: the progression of criminal behavior, the role of risk and protective factors at different ages, and the effects of significant life events. For instance, Sampson and Laub’s age-graded theory suggests that social bonds (e.g., employment, marriage) in adulthood can reduce crime involvement, regardless of prior tendencies.

Research in this area continues to explore unanswered questions, such as the influence of race, gender, and intermittency in offending patterns. By understanding these factors, life-course criminology offers insights for more effective interventions and policies that address crime across different stages of life.

Key Terms/Concepts

Activation
Age-Crime Curve
Age Graded Theory
Aggravation
Criminal Career
Developmental and Life Course (DLC) Paradigm
Desistance
Evolutionary Ecology
Farrington’s Delinquent Development Theory
Life Course Criminology
Moffitt’s Dual Taxonomic Theory
Onset
Persistence
Risk and Protective Factors
Thornberry’s Interactional Theory
Trajectories
Turning Points

Read, Review, Watch and Listen

1. Read Chapter 30: Life Course Criminology by Wesley G. Jennings, University of Louisville and Alex R. Piquero, University of Maryland

• Print a copy or have access to this reading via a digital device for in class review and discussion.
• To support the student’s reading of the article, they can listen to a recorded version of the same. Note that listening to the article is not a substitute for a careful and directed reading of the document

This chapter:

• examines the relationship between age and crime, emphasizing the age-crime curve, which typically shows crime peaking in the late teens and declining in early adulthood.
• highlights the development of life course criminology, which integrates insights from sociology and psychology to study criminal careers over time, addressing the onset, persistence, and desistance of criminal behavior.
• reviews landmark studies, including the Philadelphia Birth Cohort and Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development, which significantly contribute to understanding patterns of criminal offending across different life stages.
• discusses the importance of life transitions, such as marriage or employment, in influencing desistance from crime, as well as factors that can lead to continued offending, like incarceration.
• outlines core developmental life course (DLC) theories, such as Sampson and Laub’s age-graded theory of informal social control, which emphasizes the role of social bonds in shaping criminal behavior throughout life.

2. Review The Attachment Biobehavioral Catch-Up (ABC) Program as an example of an initiative dedicated to the parent-child relationship. Pay particular attention to the research that supports the ABC program. Click here to access an overview of the research that supports the ABC program (last accessed, July 2023).

3. Reviewhttp://www.abcintervention.org/about/ the brief overview of Mofitt’s two-path theory (Soz Theory, April 2022) and watch Jacobs Research Prize 2010 Caspi + Moffitt (Jacobs Foundation, October 21, 2010)

a. Terrie E. Moffitt has developed a two-path, or dual taxonomic, theory of criminality to explain the observation that most antisocial children do not become adult criminals.

b. Life course persisters (LCPs) display relatively constant patterns of misbehavior throughout life – the theory suggests this is due to neuropsychological deficits combined with poverty and family dysfunction.

c. Adolescence-limited offenders (ALs) go through limited periods where they exhibit high probabilities of offending – they are led into offending mainly by structural disadvantages.

4. Review and learn more about the Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods (PHDCN+) [Harvard University, last accessed, July 2023].

a. The Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP) has adopted the social development model as the foundation for its Comprehensive Strategy Program, which helps communities develop programs for preventing and responding to delinquency and crime and for early intervention.

b. The Boys and Girls Clubs of America’s Targeted Outreach program diverts at-risk juveniles into activities intended to develop a sense of belonging, competence, usefulness, and self-control.

5. Watch the National Gang Center’s (NGC) Why Youth Join Gangs

a. The National Gang Center (NGC) is a project funded by the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP), the Office of Justice Programs (OJP), U.S. Department of Justice (DOJ).

b. According to Thornberry’s Interactional Theory, delinquent peers (including gang membership) are particularly important in providing the environment necessary for criminal behavior to develop because delinquents will seek out association with ever more delinquent groups if their delinquency continues to be rewarded, delinquency is seen as a process that unfolds over the life-course.

c. Childhood maltreatment could also be an important element of the developmental process leading to delinquency.

Discussion Questions

1. How do Glen Elder’s key principles within the life-course perspective contribute to our understanding of criminal careers, and in what ways do they intersect with or differ from the concepts of activation, aggravation, and desistance?
2. Discuss the role of informal social controls, as outlined by John Laub and Robert J. Sampson, in the context of life-course criminology. How do turning points such as marriage and job stability influence the trajectory of criminal behavior, and what implications does this have for rehabilitation and policy-making?
3. Evaluate Terrie Moffitt’s dual taxonomic theory of criminality, focusing on the interaction between neuropsychological deficits and socio-economic factors like poverty and family dysfunction. How does this theory explain the divergence in criminal behavior patterns observed from childhood to adulthood?
4. Discuss the implications of Moffitt’s theory for prevention and intervention strategies targeting youth at risk of engaging in criminal activities.
5. Life-course theory emphasizes significant life transitions such as marriage, parenthood, and career changes as pivotal in altering an individual’s life path. Reflect on how these events can serve as turning points and discuss whether the impact of these transitions is more heavily influenced by the individual’s choices or by their social context. Include examples to support your argument.
6. Considering the importance of timing and sequencing of life events in life-course theory, evaluate how the timing of key life events like marriage or career transitions can influence an individual’s life outcomes. Discuss the potential consequences of “off-time” transitions (events occurring earlier or later than is typical in one’s social context) on an individual’s social and psychological well-being.
7. Life-course theory underscores the interconnectedness of lives within families, communities, and broader social networks. Explore the concept of “linked lives” and discuss how events in one person’s life can have ripple effects on others. How can this concept inform policies and interventions aimed at supporting individuals through challenging transitions or circumstances?

Supplemental Resources

• The Attachment Biobehavioral Catch-Up Program
  • ABC is an evidence-based parenting intervention for caregivers of infants and toddlers who have experienced early adversity. The program is endorsed by the MIECHV-Home Visiting Coalition, The California Evidence-Based Clearing House for Child Welfare, and SAMHSA’s National Registry of Evidence-based Programs and Practices. In light of the evidence supporting the effectiveness of ABC, we are disseminating the program at multiple sites across the nation and internationally.
• Pathways to Desistance From Crime Among Juveniles and Adults_ Applications to Criminal Justice Policy and Practice (Lila Kazemian, Ph.D., US DOJ, NIJ/OJP, 2021).
• National Crime Prevention Council (NCPC)