Module 1 provides a comprehensive overview of criminology, equipping learners with foundational knowledge and critical insights into the field. It begins by defining criminology and distinguishing it from criminal justice, emphasizing how criminology focuses on understanding the causes and nature of crime, while criminal justice pertains to the systems and processes that address criminal behavior.

The module delves into the work of criminologists, outlining their roles in studying crime patterns, analyzing criminal behavior, and contributing to policy development. It traces the history and evolution of criminology, highlighting significant milestones and the discipline’s development over time. Special attention is given to Edwin Sutherland’s contributions, particularly his role in shaping modern criminological theory.
In addition, the module explores essential concepts in social science research, such as variables and their use in criminological studies. The module defines determinism and explains how it contrasts with positivism, setting the stage for an in-depth discussion on rational choice theory and its core principles.

Summary

Criminology is a field of study that focuses on understanding crime, criminals, and the criminal justice system. It involves the examination of various aspects of crime, including its causes, consequences, and prevention. Criminologists utilize theories, research methods, and data analysis to gain insights into criminal behavior and its societal impact.

The main objectives of criminology are to develop an understanding of why crimes occur, to identify patterns and trends in criminal behavior, and to find effective strategies for crime prevention and control. Criminologists study various factors that contribute to criminal behavior, including individual, social, economic, and environmental factors. By examining these factors, criminologists aim to explain why some individuals are more likely to engage in criminal activities than others.

Criminology draws upon multiple disciplines, including sociology, psychology, economics, and law. It incorporates a range of research methods, such as surveys, interviews, experiments, and statistical analysis, to collect and analyze data. These methods help criminologists to study crime rates, victimization patterns, offender profiles, and the effectiveness of different interventions.

The findings of criminological research can be applied to policy development and crime prevention strategies. Criminologists often work closely with law enforcement agencies, policymakers, and social organizations to develop evidence-based approaches to crime reduction. They may also contribute to the development of laws and policies that aim to promote social justice and reduce crime rates.

Some areas of specialization within criminology include:

• Theoretical criminology – Examining various theories that seek to explain why individuals commit crimes, such as strain theory, social learning theory, and rational choice theory.
• Criminal profiling – Analyzing offender characteristics, behaviors, and patterns of criminal activity to develop profiles that assist in the identification and apprehension of criminals.
• Penology – Studying the punishment and rehabilitation of offenders, including the effectiveness of correctional programs and the impact of imprisonment on recidivism.
• Victimology – Investigating the experiences and consequences of crime on victims, as well as the factors that contribute to victimization and ways to support and empower victims.
• Comparative criminology – Comparing crime rates, criminal justice systems, and crime prevention strategies across different countries or regions to understand the impact of social and cultural factors.

Criminologists, as scholars and researchers, play a critical role in advancing our understanding of crime. They study crime patterns, causes, and societal impacts, often conducting research that informs public policy and practice within the criminal justice system. The work of criminologists is essential in identifying variables during social science inquiry, such as socioeconomic status, education, and environment, which are crucial in analyzing crime trends and developing prevention strategies.

Overall, criminology aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of crime and contribute to the development of evidence-based policies and interventions to prevent and address criminal behavior in society.

Criminologists have developed several established theoretical domains to explain why individuals engage in crime, including:

1. Rational Choice Theory suggests that individuals engage in crime because they believe it is a profitable and low-risk activity. In other words, they weigh the potential benefits of committing a crime against the potential risks of getting caught and punished.
2. Social Structure Theory is a criminological perspective that examines how social structures and institutions in society contribute to criminal behavior. It suggests that the arrangement and organization of social institutions, such as the family, education, economy, and the community, play a significant role in shaping individual behavior and influencing the likelihood of criminal involvement.
3. Social Learning Theory argues that individuals learn to engage in crime through observing the behaviors of others, particularly those who are close to them. They may also be influenced by media portrayals of hackers as glamorous and successful.
4. Strain Theory posits that individuals engage in crime when they experience strain or pressure in their lives, such as economic hardship or social exclusion. Crime may provide a way for them to alleviate their stress or gain a sense of power and control.
5. Routine Activities Theory suggests that crime occurs when there is a convergence of three factors: a motivated offender, a suitable target (such as a vulnerable computer system), and the absence of capable guardians (such as effective cybersecurity measures).
6. Self-Control Theory proposes that individuals who engage in crime have low levels of self-control, which makes them more likely to act impulsively and make decisions without considering the consequences.

Overall, these criminological theories help us understand the various motives, opportunities, and situational factors that contribute to crime. By better understanding the underlying causes of this type of criminal behavior, we can develop more effective strategies for preventing and responding to cybercrime.

The history and evolution of criminology have been shaped by key contributions, most notably by Edwin Sutherland, who is renowned for his theory of differential association. Sutherland’s work emphasized the role of socialization in the development of criminal behavior, highlighting that criminal behavior is learned through interactions with others.

Criminology has also grappled with theoretical frameworks like determinism and rational choice theory. Determinism suggests that human behavior is influenced by factors beyond individual control, while rational choice theory posits that individuals weigh the costs and benefits before engaging in criminal activity. This distinction highlights the difference between determinism and positivism, where positivism asserts that human behavior can be studied and understood through scientific observation.

Finally, the field distinguishes between applied criminology, which focuses on practical interventions to reduce crime, and theoretical criminology, which seeks to develop and refine the theories that explain criminal behavior. Together, these aspects provide a comprehensive understanding of criminology as a discipline.

Key Terms/Concepts

Click on the following key term/concept to view the definition:

Applied Criminology
Chicago School of Social Ecology
Classical School of Criminology
Comparative Criminology
Correlation
Criminal Justice
Criminologist
Determinism
Edwin Sutherland
Positivism
Rational Choice Theory
Theoretical Criminology
Theory
Variables

This following short interactive activity is ungraded and designed to enhance memorization.

Read, Review, Watch, and Listen

NOTE: The professor may assign one or both of these readings. Therefore, check the course syllabus or ask ask your professor about the expectation for completing this module.

1. Read Chapter 1: Criminology as Social Science: Paradigmatic Resiliency and Shift in the 21st Century by J. Michell Miller, University of Texas at San Antonio (M. J. Miller, 2009)

• Print a copy or have access to this reading via a digital device for in class review and discussion.
• To support the student’s reading of the article, they can listen to a recorded version of the same. Note that listening to the article is not a substitute for a careful and directed reading of the document.

This chapter:

• provides a comprehensive overview of criminology as a social science, tracing its historical development, theoretical and methodological foundations, and future directions.
• concludes that criminology is a dynamic and evolving discipline that is influenced by multiple disciplines and perspectives, and that criminology has a vital role in informing social policy and criminal justice practice.
• implies that criminology is a relevant and important field of study that can enhance our knowledge and understanding of crime as a social phenomenon, and that criminology can contribute to the prevention and reduction of crime and the promotion of justice and peace.

2. Read Chapter 2: History and Evolution of Criminology, by Charles F. Wellford, University of Maryland (as cited in M.J. Miller, 2009)

• Print a copy or have access to this reading via a digital device for in class review and discussion.
• To support the student’s reading of the article, they can listen to a recorded version of the same. Note that listening to the article is not a substitute for a careful and directed reading of the document.

This chapter:

• introduces criminology is the scientific study of the making, breaking, and reaction to lawbreaking.
• explains that criminology has two main foundations: (1) the interdisciplinary explanation of crime and (2) the analysis of the fairness and effectiveness of the criminal justice system.
• describes criminology as a separate field of study in the 1930s and 1940s, influenced by the works of Beccaria and Lombroso, among others.
  provides an overview of the development of criminological theories of crime and describes various phases of theoretical development: (1) single-factor reductionism, (2) systemic reductionism, (3) multidisciplinary approaches, and (4) interdisciplinary theory.
• describes the future of criminology and criminal Justice, which has become one of the most dynamic and fastest growing social sciences, with a commitment to scientific rigor, interdisciplinary theory, and improving the criminal justice system.

3. Review Florida State University’s Department of Computer Science, Why Major in Cyber Criminology

With the rise in cybercrime, there’s a high demand for professionals skilled in understanding and combating online threats. Careers in cyber criminology, such as cybersecurity analyst or forensic investigator, often come with competitive salaries due to specialized skills.

The field combines technology, criminal justice, psychology, and law, offering a diverse and intellectually stimulating education. You can help protect individuals, organizations, and governments from cyber threats and contribute to a safer digital world.

As technology evolves, so do the challenges. A degree in cyber criminology equips you to stay relevant in a constantly changing landscape. Graduates can work in law enforcement, private cybersecurity firms, governmental agencies, or even pursue advanced research in cybercrime prevention. Tackling cybercrimes involves solving complex problems, investigating digital evidence, and staying ahead of cybercriminals, making it an engaging field.

Cybercriminology is important for several reasons in today’s digital age:

4. Watch the Center for Homeland Defense and Security’s Hypothesis 101 (and other Social Science Concepts) [28:50] (also embedded below)

Hypothesis testing is a fundamental concept in statistics that is used to make informed decisions about a population based on a sample of data. It involves the formulation of hypotheses, statistical analysis of sample data, and drawing conclusions about the population. Hypothesis testing helps researchers and analysts determine whether observed effects or differences in data are statistically significant or if they could have occurred by chance.

The process of hypothesis testing typically involves the following steps:

6.  Listen to Social Science Bites (2013), Lawrence Sherman on Criminology By Social Science Bites (Nigel Warburton and David Edmonds).

• Lawrence Sherman is a professor of criminology at Cambridge University and a keen advocate of experimental criminology. In this episode of the Social Science Bites podcast he outlines his approach and gives some examples of its successes. Social Science Bites is made in association with SAGE.
• According to Lawrence Sherman:
• • Criminology is the science of law-making, law-breaking, and law-enforcing, aiming to improve decisions on preventing and responding to crime.
  • Traditional criminology has been largely descriptive or observational, but Lawrence Sherman advocates for experimental criminology, which focuses on evidence-based, interventionist approaches.
  • Experimental criminology applies methods like randomized controlled trials to test the effectiveness of interventions in the criminal justice system.
  • Examples include randomized police arrests for domestic violence and hot spots policing, which focus on concentrating resources in high-crime areas.
  • Research shows the effect of police arrest varies depending on social and economic contexts. For example, arrests may reduce repeat offending in high-employment areas but increase it in areas of high unemployment.
  • Long-term studies reveal persistent effects of interventions, highlighting the importance of context-specific strategies.
  • Restorative justice involves offenders meeting their victims, acknowledging harm, and seeking ways to repair relationships.
  • Experiments in restorative justice demonstrate reduced repeat offending and higher victim satisfaction compared to traditional prosecution, challenging the perception that it is a “soft” option.
  • Criminology incorporates insights from psychology, behavioral economics, sociology, and other fields to design and test interventions.
  • Sherman emphasizes the importance of evidence-based approaches, collaboration with local authorities, and minimal political interference to ensure objectivity and effectiveness in policymaking.

Discussion Questions

1. How would you define criminology and what are its main objectives?
2. What are some of the major paradigm shifts in criminology and what factors influenced them?
3. What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of different research methods in criminology and how do they relate to theory?
4. What are some of the current and emerging trends and challenges in criminology and how can they be addressed?
5. How can criminology be more interdisciplinary and policy relevant and what are some of the barriers and opportunities for doing so?

Supplemental Resources

• Sage Theoretical Criminology
• Systematic reviews and evidence-based practices in criminology – the Campbell Collaboration
• Resources on global crime patterns and justice systems – World Bank Crime and Violence Data