Crime, Deviance, and Criminology as a Mainstream Discipline
Module 1 provides a comprehensive overview of criminology, equipping learners with foundational knowledge and critical insights into the field. It begins by defining criminology and distinguishing it from criminal justice, emphasizing how criminology focuses on understanding the causes and nature of crime, while criminal justice pertains to the systems and processes that address criminal behavior.
The module delves into the work of criminologists, outlining their roles in studying crime patterns, analyzing criminal behavior, and contributing to policy development. It traces the history and evolution of criminology, highlighting significant milestones and the discipline’s development over time. Special attention is given to Edwin Sutherland’s contributions, particularly his role in shaping modern criminological theory.
In addition, the module explores essential concepts in social science research, such as variables and their use in criminological studies. The module defines determinism and explains how it contrasts with positivism, setting the stage for an in-depth discussion on rational choice theory and its core principles.
Learning Objectives
After completing this module, you should be able to:
- define criminology.
- discuss the difference between criminal justice and criminology.
- describe the work of criminologists.
- summarize the history and evolution of criminology.
- recognize those contributions to the discipline made by Edwin Sutherland.
- Identify variables used during social science inquiry.
- define determinism.
- restate the tenets of rational choice theory.
- explain the difference between determinism and positivism.
- discuss the difference between applied and theoretical criminology
Summary
Criminology is a field of study that focuses on understanding crime, criminals, and the criminal justice system. It involves the examination of various aspects of crime, including its causes, consequences, and prevention. Criminologists utilize theories, research methods, and data analysis to gain insights into criminal behavior and its societal impact.
The main objectives of criminology are to develop an understanding of why crimes occur, to identify patterns and trends in criminal behavior, and to find effective strategies for crime prevention and control. Criminologists study various factors that contribute to criminal behavior, including individual, social, economic, and environmental factors. By examining these factors, criminologists aim to explain why some individuals are more likely to engage in criminal activities than others.
Criminology draws upon multiple disciplines, including sociology, psychology, economics, and law. It incorporates a range of research methods, such as surveys, interviews, experiments, and statistical analysis, to collect and analyze data. These methods help criminologists to study crime rates, victimization patterns, offender profiles, and the effectiveness of different interventions.
The findings of criminological research can be applied to policy development and crime prevention strategies. Criminologists often work closely with law enforcement agencies, policymakers, and social organizations to develop evidence-based approaches to crime reduction. They may also contribute to the development of laws and policies that aim to promote social justice and reduce crime rates.
Some areas of specialization within criminology include:
- Theoretical criminology – Examining various theories that seek to explain why individuals commit crimes, such as strain theory, social learning theory, and rational choice theory.
- Criminal profiling – Analyzing offender characteristics, behaviors, and patterns of criminal activity to develop profiles that assist in the identification and apprehension of criminals.
- Penology – Studying the punishment and rehabilitation of offenders, including the effectiveness of correctional programs and the impact of imprisonment on recidivism.
- Victimology – Investigating the experiences and consequences of crime on victims, as well as the factors that contribute to victimization and ways to support and empower victims.
- Comparative criminology – Comparing crime rates, criminal justice systems, and crime prevention strategies across different countries or regions to understand the impact of social and cultural factors.
Criminologists, as scholars and researchers, play a critical role in advancing our understanding of crime. They study crime patterns, causes, and societal impacts, often conducting research that informs public policy and practice within the criminal justice system. The work of criminologists is essential in identifying variables during social science inquiry, such as socioeconomic status, education, and environment, which are crucial in analyzing crime trends and developing prevention strategies.
Overall, criminology aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of crime and contribute to the development of evidence-based policies and interventions to prevent and address criminal behavior in society.
Criminologists have developed several established theoretical domains to explain why individuals engage in crime, including:
- Rational Choice Theory suggests that individuals engage in crime because they believe it is a profitable and low-risk activity. In other words, they weigh the potential benefits of committing a crime against the potential risks of getting caught and punished.
- Social Structure Theory is a criminological perspective that examines how social structures and institutions in society contribute to criminal behavior. It suggests that the arrangement and organization of social institutions, such as the family, education, economy, and the community, play a significant role in shaping individual behavior and influencing the likelihood of criminal involvement.
- Social Learning Theory argues that individuals learn to engage in crime through observing the behaviors of others, particularly those who are close to them. They may also be influenced by media portrayals of hackers as glamorous and successful.
- Strain Theory posits that individuals engage in crime when they experience strain or pressure in their lives, such as economic hardship or social exclusion. Crime may provide a way for them to alleviate their stress or gain a sense of power and control.
- Routine Activities Theory suggests that crime occurs when there is a convergence of three factors: a motivated offender, a suitable target (such as a vulnerable computer system), and the absence of capable guardians (such as effective cybersecurity measures).
- Self-Control Theory proposes that individuals who engage in crime have low levels of self-control, which makes them more likely to act impulsively and make decisions without considering the consequences.
Overall, these criminological theories help us understand the various motives, opportunities, and situational factors that contribute to crime. By better understanding the underlying causes of this type of criminal behavior, we can develop more effective strategies for preventing and responding to cybercrime.
The history and evolution of criminology have been shaped by key contributions, most notably by Edwin Sutherland, who is renowned for his theory of differential association. Sutherland’s work emphasized the role of socialization in the development of criminal behavior, highlighting that criminal behavior is learned through interactions with others.
Criminology has also grappled with theoretical frameworks like determinism and rational choice theory. Determinism suggests that human behavior is influenced by factors beyond individual control, while rational choice theory posits that individuals weigh the costs and benefits before engaging in criminal activity. This distinction highlights the difference between determinism and positivism, where positivism asserts that human behavior can be studied and understood through scientific observation.
Finally, the field distinguishes between applied criminology, which focuses on practical interventions to reduce crime, and theoretical criminology, which seeks to develop and refine the theories that explain criminal behavior. Together, these aspects provide a comprehensive understanding of criminology as a discipline.
Key Takeaways
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Key Terms/Concepts
Click on the following key term/concept to view the definition:
Applied Criminology
Chicago School of Social Ecology
Classical School of Criminology
Comparative Criminology
Correlation
Criminal Justice
Criminologist
Determinism
Edwin Sutherland
Positivism
Rational Choice Theory
Theoretical Criminology
Theory
Variables
This following short interactive activity is ungraded and designed to enhance memorization.
Modern Application
There is a growing need to understand internal (i.e., individual) and external (i.e., social and structural) factors that contribute to various forms of digital crime. Therefore, traditional aspects of criminology must embrace new paradigms that consider the digital context and its influence on human behavior. Applications of newly proposed cybercriminological frameworks will invariably prove beneficial for both private and public sectors.
Understanding what internal and external conditions contribute to the commission of cybercrime makes it possible to prevent, respond to, and even eliminate the incentive to engage in various forms of digitally facilitated deviance and crime.
The Federal Bureau of Investigation’s (FBI) Internet Crime Complaint Center (IC3) is the Nation’s central hub for reporting cyber crime. Historically, the FBI has played an important role in our understanding of crime within the United States. Therefore, it is instructive to review current examples of, “Traditional crimes committed in non-traditional ways.”
- Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) – Cyber Crime news and press releases
Read, Review, Watch, and Listen
1. Read Chapter 1: Criminology as Social Science: Paradigmatic Resiliency and Shift in the 21st Century by J. Michell Miller, University of Texas at San Antonio (M. J. Miller, 2009)
- Print a copy or have access to this reading via a digital device for in class review and discussion.
- To support the student’s reading of the article, they can listen to a recorded version of the same. Note that listening to the article is not a substitute for a careful and directed reading of the document.
This chapter:
- provides a comprehensive overview of criminology as a social science, tracing its historical development, theoretical and methodological foundations, and future directions.
- concludes that criminology is a dynamic and evolving discipline that is influenced by multiple disciplines and perspectives, and that criminology has a vital role in informing social policy and criminal justice practice.
- implies that criminology is a relevant and important field of study that can enhance our knowledge and understanding of crime as a social phenomenon, and that criminology can contribute to the prevention and reduction of crime and the promotion of justice and peace.
2. Read Chapter 2: History and Evolution of Criminology, by Charles F. Wellford, University of Maryland (as cited in M.J. Miller, 2009)
- Print a copy or have access to this reading via a digital device for in class review and discussion.
- To support the student’s reading of the article, they can listen to a recorded version of the same. Note that listening to the article is not a substitute for a careful and directed reading of the document.
This chapter:
- introduces criminology is the scientific study of the making, breaking, and reaction to lawbreaking.
- explains that criminology has two main foundations: (1) the interdisciplinary explanation of crime and (2) the analysis of the fairness and effectiveness of the criminal justice system.
- describes criminology as a separate field of study in the 1930s and 1940s, influenced by the works of Beccaria and Lombroso, among others.
provides an overview of the development of criminological theories of crime and describes various phases of theoretical development: (1) single-factor reductionism, (2) systemic reductionism, (3) multidisciplinary approaches, and (4) interdisciplinary theory. - describes the future of criminology and criminal Justice, which has become one of the most dynamic and fastest growing social sciences, with a commitment to scientific rigor, interdisciplinary theory, and improving the criminal justice system.
3. Review Florida State University’s Department of Computer Science, Why Major in Cyber Criminology
Cybercriminology is important for several reasons in today’s digital age:
In essence, cybercriminology plays a critical role in enhancing our understanding of cybercriminal behavior, devising effective countermeasures, protecting sensitive information, and maintaining the overall security of digital systems and networks.
4. Watch the Center for Homeland Defense and Security’s Hypothesis 101 (and other Social Science Concepts) [28:50] (also embedded below)
Hypothesis testing is a fundamental concept in statistics that is used to make informed decisions about a population based on a sample of data. It involves the formulation of hypotheses, statistical analysis of sample data, and drawing conclusions about the population. Hypothesis testing helps researchers and analysts determine whether observed effects or differences in data are statistically significant or if they could have occurred by chance.
The process of hypothesis testing typically involves the following steps:
5. Watch Careers in criminology (UniSC University of the Sunshine Coast, Aug. 30, 2021) [also embedded below]
To access the PPT file, click HERE. Note that files are updated regularly and as such might change in content and appearance.
Read, Review, Watch and Listen to all listed materials by the due date listed within the course LMS (i.e., Blackboard) site.
Contact the professor with any course-related questions
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Discussion Questions
- How would you define criminology and what are its main objectives?
- What are some of the major paradigm shifts in criminology and what factors influenced them?
- What are some of the advantages and disadvantages of different research methods in criminology and how do they relate to theory?
- What are some of the current and emerging trends and challenges in criminology and how can they be addressed?
- How can criminology be more interdisciplinary and policy relevant and what are some of the barriers and opportunities for doing so?
Supplemental Resources
- Additional resources are added by the professor if/when they deem relevant to the module.
References
- Wellford, Charles F. “History and Evolution of Criminology.” 21st Century Criminology: A Reference Handbook, edited by J. Mitchell Miller, vol. 1, SAGE Reference, 2009, pp. 10-17. 21st Century Reference Series. Gale eBooks, link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3201600011/GVRL?u=cod_lrc&sid=bookmark-GVRL&xid=2fa78a10. Accessed 29 Dec. 2023.
- Wellford, Charles F. “History and Evolution of Criminology.” 21st Century Criminology: A Reference Handbook, edited by J. Mitchell Miller, vol. 1, SAGE Reference, 2009, pp. 10-17. 21st Century Reference Series. Gale eBooks, link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3201600011/GVRL?u=cod_lrc&sid=bookmark-GVRL&xid=2fa78a10. Accessed 29 Dec. 2023.
- Why major in cyber criminology. Computer Science. (n.d.). https://www.cs.fsu.edu/academics/why-major-in-cyber-criminology/. Accessed 29 Dec. 2023.
- UniSC: University of the Sunshine Coast. (2021, August 31). Careers in criminology. YouTube. https://youtu.be/RXWSQe8SzMM?feature=shared. Accessed 29 Dec. 2023.
- Crime, Deviance, and Criminology as a Social Science. https://cod.yuja.com/V/Video?v=7963656&a=77764040. Ramirez-Thompson, E.R., 2023. Accessed 29 Dec. 2023.
Applied criminology is a multidisciplinary field that utilizes theories, research methods, and practical knowledge to address and solve real-world problems related to crime, criminal behavior, and the criminal justice system. It involves the practical application of criminological theories and concepts to develop strategies and interventions that can prevent crime, reduce criminal behavior, and improve the functioning of the criminal justice system.
Applied criminology draws from various disciplines such as sociology, psychology, law, anthropology, and public policy. Its primary focus is on practical outcomes and the implementation of evidence-based practices to create safer communities, enhance the effectiveness of law enforcement agencies, and promote social justice.
Professionals working in applied criminology may engage in a range of activities, including conducting research to evaluate the effectiveness of crime prevention programs, analyzing crime patterns and trends, developing policies and interventions to address specific crime issues, providing expertise and guidance to law enforcement agencies, advocating for criminal justice reform, and working with communities to implement crime prevention strategies.
Overall, applied criminology aims to bridge the gap between theoretical knowledge and real-world application, with the goal of reducing crime, improving the criminal justice system, and creating safer societies.
Chicago School of Social Ecology also known as the Chicago School of Sociology, refers to a sociological tradition that emerged in the early 20th century at the University of Chicago. It is recognized as a prominent and influential approach within the field of sociology.
The Chicago School of Social Ecology emphasized the importance of studying social phenomena within their specific social and physical environments. Its scholars sought to understand how social structures, urban environments, and community dynamics influenced individual behavior and social interactions.
The school's researchers conducted groundbreaking studies, particularly in the areas of urban sociology and criminology, focusing on the city of Chicago as their primary laboratory. Their work explored the relationship between social disorganization, urbanization, and crime rates, as well as the impact of community structures and institutions on individual behavior.
Notable scholars associated with the Chicago School of Social Ecology include Robert E. Park, Ernest Burgess, Louis Wirth, and Clifford Shaw. Their studies often involved conducting field research, employing qualitative methods, and employing concepts such as social disorganization, urban ecology, and the concentric zone model.
The Chicago School's ideas and research methods had a profound influence on the development of sociology, criminology, and urban studies. The school's emphasis on the importance of social context and environmental factors in shaping human behavior continues to inform research in these fields today.
Classical school of criminology is a theory of crime and punishment that originated in the 18th century and was developed by various Enlightenment thinkers, most notably Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham. It is considered one of the foundational theories of criminology.
The classical school of criminology is based on the idea of free will and rational choice. It posits that individuals are rational beings who weigh the potential benefits and costs of their actions before engaging in criminal behavior. According to this perspective, people choose to commit crimes when the perceived benefits outweigh the potential risks or punishments.
Key principles and concepts of the classical school of criminology include the hedonistic calculus, a focus on deterrence, an exploration and emphasis on the efficacy of punishment, and the promotion of legal equity.
The classical school of criminology had a significant impact on the development of modern criminal justice systems. Its principles have influenced the establishment of legal codes, the design of punishment systems, and the focus on deterrence in criminal justice policies. While the classical school has been criticized and supplemented by other theories over time, its emphasis on rationality, free will, and deterrence remains influential in the field of criminology.
A field of study within criminology that involves the systematic comparison of criminal justice systems, crime rates, and related phenomena across different countries or regions. This interdisciplinary field draws on principles from sociology, law, political science, anthropology, and other disciplines to analyze and compare various aspects of crime and criminal justice.
Researchers in comparative criminology aim to understand the similarities and differences in the patterns of crime, the effectiveness of criminal justice policies, and the social, economic, and cultural factors that may contribute to variations in criminal behavior and law enforcement practices. By examining these factors across different contexts, scholars in comparative criminology seek to identify commonalities and unique features that can inform theories and policies aimed at preventing and controlling crime.
Correlation refers to a statistical measure that quantifies the relationship or association between two or more variables. It describes the extent to which changes in one variable are related to changes in another variable. Correlation does not imply causation, meaning that a correlation between two variables does not necessarily indicate that one variable causes the other to change. Correlation analysis is widely used in various fields, including statistics, social sciences, economics, and medical research. It helps researchers and analysts understand the degree and direction of association between variables, identify patterns, make predictions, and guide decision-making. However, it is important to note that correlation alone does not establish a cause-and-effect relationship between variables, as other factors or variables may be involved.
Criminal Justice refers to the system of practices and institutions established by governments to maintain social order, deter and control crime, and administer justice to those who violate the law. It encompasses a broad range of processes, organizations, and individuals involved in the detection, investigation, prosecution, and punishment of criminal offenses.
The criminal justice system typically consists of three main components: (1) law enforcement, (2) courts, and (3) corrections.
A criminologist is a professional who studies the causes, consequences, prevention, and control of criminal behavior. Criminology is a multidisciplinary field that draws from various disciplines, including sociology, psychology, law, anthropology, and criminal justice. Criminologists apply scientific methods and theories to analyze and understand crime patterns, criminal behavior, and the functioning of the criminal justice system.
The work of a criminologist can vary depending on their specialization and the context in which they operate. Some common roles and responsibilities of criminologists include (1) Social Research, (2) Crime Prevention through public policy, (3) Policy Analysis, (4) Criminal Profiling, (5) Education and Advocacy, and more!
Overall, criminologists play a crucial role in understanding, analyzing, and addressing issues related to crime, criminal behavior, and the criminal justice system. Their work aims to inform policy, improve crime prevention strategies, and contribute to the development of effective and fair criminal justice practices.
Determinism is a philosophical concept that posits that every event or phenomenon, including human actions and choices, is causally determined by preceding events and conditions. It suggests that there is a fixed chain of cause and effect in the universe, and given the same circumstances, the same outcome will always occur.
According to determinism, free will is an illusion, and human behavior is ultimately governed by factors beyond individual control, such as genetics, environment, upbringing, and societal influences. It suggests that individuals do not have true autonomy or the ability to make choices that are independent of causal factors.
Edwin Sutherland (1883-1950) was an influential American sociologist and criminologist who made significant contributions to the field of criminology. He is best known for developing the theory of differential association, which has had a lasting impact on our understanding of crime and delinquency.
One of Sutherland's most notable contributions was the development of the theory of differential association. In 1939, he published his influential book "Principles of Criminology," where he introduced this theory. The theory proposes that criminal behavior is learned through social interaction and communication with others. According to Sutherland, individuals acquire criminal attitudes, values, techniques, and motives through their associations with others who engage in criminal behavior.
Sutherland's theory challenged the prevailing views of his time, which focused primarily on individual traits and biological factors as the primary causes of crime. His differential association theory emphasized the importance of social and environmental influences on criminal behavior, highlighting the role of interpersonal relationships, peer groups, and subcultures in shaping individuals' propensity for criminality.
In addition to his work on differential association, Sutherland made significant contributions to the study of white-collar crime. He coined the term "white-collar crime" to refer to offenses committed by individuals of higher social and economic status during their occupational activities. His research and writings on this topic shed light on the prevalence and impact of corporate and financial crimes, challenging the notion that crime is solely a product of lower-class or marginalized individuals.
Edwin Sutherland's work continues to be highly influential in the field of criminology, shaping our understanding of the social and environmental factors that contribute to criminal behavior. His focus on the importance of social learning and the role of influential social groups has informed subsequent research and theories in the field.
Positivism within criminology refers to a theoretical approach that emphasizes the application of scientific methods and empirical observation in the study of crime and criminal behavior. It emerged in the late 19th century as a response to the limitations of earlier philosophical and moralistic explanations of crime.
Positivist criminology rejects the idea that crime is solely a result of individual choices or moral failings. Instead, it seeks to understand crime as a social phenomenon influenced by various factors, including biological, psychological, and social determinants. Positivist criminologists believe that scientific methods can uncover the underlying causes of criminal behavior and inform effective crime prevention and control strategies.
The key principles of positivist criminology include: (1) empiricism, (2) determinism, and (3) objectivity, and (4) use of the scientific method.
Positivist criminology has led to advancements in the understanding of crime through the use of empirical research and statistical analysis. It has influenced the development of various subfields within criminology, such as biosocial criminology, psychological criminology, and sociological criminology. Positivist perspectives have also influenced the development of evidence-based policies and interventions in the field of criminal justice.
Rational Choice Theory is a perspective within criminology that suggests individuals make decisions and engage in behavior based on a rational calculation of costs and benefits. It is a framework that assumes individuals act in their own self-interest and seek to maximize their personal advantages while minimizing potential disadvantages.
According to rational choice theory, individuals consider the potential rewards and risks associated with a particular action before deciding whether to engage in it. They weigh the expected benefits, such as financial gain or personal satisfaction, against the potential costs, such as legal consequences or physical harm. The theory posits that individuals make rational choices by comparing the potential outcomes and selecting the course of action that offers the greatest net benefit.
Theoretical criminology provides a framework for understanding the complex causes of crime and helps generate hypotheses and guide empirical research. By studying these theories, criminologists seek to develop effective crime prevention strategies, inform policy decisions, and contribute to the broader understanding of crime and criminal justice.
Theoretical criminology encompasses a wide range of perspectives and theories, each offering different explanations and insights into criminal behavior. Some prominent theoretical perspectives within criminology include: (1) Classical Criminology, (2) Biological and Biosocial, (3) Psychological, (4) Social Structure, (5) Social Process, (6) Strain, and (7) Critical/Radical criminology.
Succinctly, an explanation. Also, a part of everyday life and an attempt to identify and explain the order of natural occurrences through statements about correlations between observable events that would be otherwise unexplainable.
Variables in the social science refers to a measurable or observable concept or characteristic that can vary or take on different values. Variables are used to study and understand the relationships between different phenomena or concepts. Variables can be classified into two main types; that is independent and dependent.
