Social Class and Crime
Module 15 examines the long-standing debate in criminology regarding the relationship between social class and crime. It also investigates the potentially incorrect causal relationship between lower social classes and criminality, which has profoundly impacted criminal justice policy and practice. Particular attention is given to the examination of social class as a construct that attempts to differentiate social groups according to their access to economic, social, political, cultural, or lifestyle resources.
Learning Objectives
After completing this module, you should be able to:
- discuss the relationship between social class and crime.
- recognize those most notable aspects of the relationship between social class and crime; that is, how social class shames the definition of crime, how social class influences patterns of victimization and wrongful behavior, and how the commonly held perception that crime is predominantly a lower-class problem.
- identify social class and why it is important.
- discuss the social class-crime link.
- explain the relation between social class and criminality.
- identify factors that establish the perception of crime as a lower-class phenomenon.
- illustrate how social class and criminal victimization are related.
- discuss the nexus between social class, crime, and policy.
- analyze how crimes of the financial and political elite potentially cause more harm than those who commit various forms of street crime.
Summary
The relationship between social class and crime has been a topic of considerable debate and research in sociology and criminology. Various studies have explored the correlations and potential causal links between socioeconomic status (SES) or social class and criminal behavior. While it is essential to note that crime is a complex and multi-faceted phenomenon influenced by numerous factors, including individual, social, and economic elements, there are some notable patterns regarding social class and crime.
Research has consistently found a positive correlation between lower socioeconomic status and higher rates of involvement in criminal activities. People from lower social classes, who often face economic hardships, limited access to education, and fewer opportunities for legitimate means of income, may be more likely to engage in criminal behavior as a means of survival or to achieve their material goals.
Structural theorists argue that crime rates are influenced by the structural inequalities prevalent in society. According to this perspective, individuals from lower social classes are more likely to experience strain and frustration due to their limited access to resources, leading to higher levels of deviance and criminality as a coping mechanism.
Opportunity theory suggests that crime rates are influenced by the availability of criminal opportunities. People from lower social classes may be more exposed to crime-prone environments, making them more likely to engage in criminal activities as they perceive a lack of legitimate opportunities to improve their lives.
Labeling theorists argue that individuals from lower social classes may be more likely to be labeled as criminals by the authorities and society due to the negative stereotypes associated with their class. This labeling can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, where individuals internalize the criminal identity imposed on them and engage in further criminal behavior.
While crime is often associated with lower social classes, white-collar crime refers to nonviolent offenses committed by individuals in higher social classes, such as corporate fraud, embezzlement, and insider trading. White-collar crime can cause significant financial harm but is often treated differently by the criminal justice system compared to street crimes.
It is crucial to avoid oversimplifying the relationship between social class and crime. Not everyone from a lower social class engages in criminal behavior, and crime is not exclusive to any particular social class. There are many law-abiding individuals from disadvantaged backgrounds who rise above their circumstances through hard work, determination, and access to opportunities. Additionally, there are wealthy individuals who engage in criminal activities despite their privilege.
To address crime effectively, it is essential to consider and address the underlying social and economic factors that contribute to criminal behavior, rather than solely focusing on punitive measures. Policies aimed at reducing crime should focus on improving educational opportunities, providing access to employment, reducing economic inequality, and creating safer and more supportive communities for everyone.
Key Takeaways
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Key Terms/Concepts
Click on the following key term/concept to view the definition:
Criminogenic
Cultural Capital
Dark Figure of Crime
Elite Crime
Lifestyle Resources
Marxian Model of Social Class
Moral Poverty
Political Resources
Preventive Justice Strategies
Self-Report Surveys
Social Class
Social Interactionist Theories
Social Resources
Structural Strain
Weberian Model of Social Class
White-Collar Crime
Read, Review, Watch and Listen
1. Read Chapter 19: Social Class and Crime by Michael T. Costelloe and Raymond J. Michalowski, Northern Arizona University
This chapter:
- explores the historical and ongoing debate about the relationship between social class and crime, emphasizing the methodological and conceptual challenges in determining whether crime is predominantly a lower-class phenomenon.
- investigates how social class impacts definitions of crime, patterns of victimization, and perceptions of criminal behavior, revealing a systemic bias that often targets lower-income populations while overlooking elite crimes.
- examines theoretical frameworks explaining crime in different social classes, contrasting individualistic, social interactionist, and structural outcome theories to highlight the diverse drivers of criminal behavior.
- discusses the role of systemic inequality and social class in shaping access to justice, illustrating how advantaged groups benefit from biases in criminal justice processes, including definitions of crime and severity of punishment.
- critiques the focus of criminology and public perceptions on street crime, which disproportionately involves the poor, while neglecting the broader and more harmful impacts of white-collar and elite crimes.
2. Review the Bureau of Justice Statistics’ (BJS) Employment of State and Federal Prisoners Prior to Incarceration, 2016 (Maruschak, L.M. and Snell, T.L., February 2023) [last accessed August 2023]
a. Social structure theories emphasize social structure as the root cause of crime. Therefore, they suggest policies that emphasize social action would be the best approach to ameliorating the crime problem.
b. Social changes and governmental policy initiatives based on these theories would focus on alleviating the social conditions believed to produce crime, such as income inequality, educational deprivation, racism, social injustice, and other economic and social inequities. These programs would focus on increasing the availability of socially approved opportunities for success and increasing the availability of meaningful employment. Some programs of this type have been shown to be effective in reducing rates of delinquency and crime.
3. Review the Prison Policy Initiative’s Prisons of Poverty: Uncovering the pre-incarceration incomes of the imprisoned (Bernadette Rabuy and Daniel Kopf, July 2015) [last accessed August 2023]
a. The Prison Policy Initiative provides research involving the impact of socioeconomic disparities on incarceration rates.
b. Incarcerated individuals had a median annual income of $19,185 before imprisonment, which is 41% less than non-incarcerated individuals of similar ages.
c. There is an income gap that exists across all gender, race, and ethnicity groups, with incarcerated individuals earning substantially less than their non-incarcerated counterparts.
d. Incarcerated individuals are disproportionately represented at the lowest ends of the national income distribution, indicating a strong link between low income and likelihood of incarceration.
e. The combination of low pre-incarceration incomes and limited access to education and job training exacerbates challenges in securing employment post-release, increasing the risk of recidivism.
f. Addressing economic inequalities and providing support such as job training and education are crucial in reducing incarceration rates and aiding successful reintegration into society.
4. Review the U.S. Bureau of Census’ Income in the United States: 2023-Current Population Reports (Jessica Semega and Melissa Kollar, September 2022) [last accessed August 2023]
a. Social structure theories have influenced social policy, through programs such as the Chicago Area Project, Mobilization for Youth, and the War on Poverty. The social structural perspective is closely associated with the social problems approach and negates the claims of the social responsibility perspective.
b. The social problems perspective sees crime as a manifestation of underlying social problems (poverty, discrimination, inequality of opportunity, the poor quality of education in some parts of the country, etc.).
c. This perspective suggests that we need to deal with crime the same way we deal with public health concerns.
d. Solutions to the crime problem are seen as coming from large-scale government expenditures supporting social programs that address the issues that are at the root of crime.
e. This is a macro approach because it sees individual behavior (crime) as resulting from widespread and contributory social conditions that enmesh unwitting individuals in a causal nexus of uncontrollable social forces.
5. Watch US: Probation, Parole Feed Mass Incarceration Crisis (Human Rights Watch, July 31, 2020)
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Read, Review, Watch and Listen to all listed materials by the due date listed within the course LMS (i.e., Blackboard) site.
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Discussion Questions
- How can we measure and compare the harms caused by different types of crimes?
- How can we reduce the social and economic inequalities that contribute to crime and victimization?
- How can we ensure that the criminal justice system is fair and impartial to all social classes?
Supplemental Resources
- U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS)
- Offers data on incarceration rates, demographics, and the socioeconomic status of prisoners.
- U.S. Census Bureau – Income and Poverty Statistics
- Provides detailed reports on income inequality and its implications for social mobility.
- National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)
- A resource for understanding victimization patterns by socioeconomic status.
- The Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get Prison: Ideology, Class, and Criminal Justice (11th Edition, 2016) – By Jeffrey Reiman and Paul Leighton.
- A widely read critical criminology text, it critiques the U.S. criminal justice system, emphasizing class disparities.
- U.S. Sentencing Commission
- Data on sentencing disparities related to socioeconomic and demographic factors.
References
- Costelloe, M. T., & Michalowski, R. J. (2009). Social Class and Crime. In J. M. Miller (Ed.), 21st Century Reference Series. 21st Century Criminology: A Reference Handbook (Vol. 1, pp. 153-161). SAGE Reference. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3201600029/GVRL?u=cod_lrc&sid=bookmark-GVRL&xid=66606965
Refers to factors or conditions, such as those associated with a lower-class lifestyle, that are believed to contribute to or cause criminal behavior.
A sociological concept developed by the French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu in the 1970s. It refers to the non-financial social assets that individuals acquire through their socialization, education, and exposure to various cultural practices. This concept is essential for understanding how social inequality is perpetuated and how different forms of capital (economic, social, and cultural) contribute to an individual's social status and opportunities in life.
The amount of crime that goes unreported or undetected, making it absent from official crime statistics and potentially skewing perceptions of crime distribution.
Crimes committed by individuals or groups in positions of power, often overlooked or treated more leniently by the justice system compared to street crimes.
Refers to the degree to which group-based patterns of behavior and belief are valued or devalued within a society, e.g., modes of speech, style of dress, attitudes and values, etc.
Developed by the German philosopher and economist Karl Marx, is a key component of Marxist theory. Marx's analysis of class focuses on the relationship between the means of production, the ruling class, and the working class, providing insights into the dynamics of capitalist societies and the inherent conflict between different social classes.
A concept that refers to the lack or deficiency of moral values, ethical principles, and empathy in individuals or societies. It suggests that individuals or communities may experience poverty not only in material or economic terms but also in their moral and ethical development.
Refers to the exercise of power outside of government.
Policies designed to address the root causes of crime through measures such as education, housing, and income support, aimed at reducing inequality and its criminogenic effects.
Involves individuals reporting their own involvement in criminal activities. These surveys are typically conducted anonymously and can provide insights into less detected or unreported crimes. They are often used to study juvenile delinquency and certain types of offenses.
A system of stratification based on access to economic, social, political, cultural, and lifestyle resources, often categorized as upper, middle, lower, working class, and underclass.
A set of sociological perspectives that focus on the role of social interactions in shaping human behavior, language development, and the construction of social reality. These theories emphasize how individuals develop a sense of self and meaning through their interactions with others and the larger social
Also known as social capital, refer to the network of relationships and connections that individuals and groups have in a society. These resources include both tangible and intangible assets that arise from social interactions and can provide various advantages and opportunities for individuals and communities. Social resources are essential for personal and collective well-being, as they facilitate access to information, support, and resources that may not be available through other means.
A theory suggesting that societal pressures and inequalities, such as the discrepancy between material aspirations and access to legitimate means of achieving them, lead to criminal behavior.
Proposed by the German sociologist Max Weber, is a theoretical framework that emphasizes the multidimensional nature of social stratification. Unlike Karl Marx, who focused primarily on economic factors as the basis of social class, Weber argued that social class should be understood as a combination of three interrelated dimensions: class, status, and party.
Non-violent crimes committed by individuals in high social or economic positions, typically involving fraud, embezzlement, or other financial misconduct.
