Criminology and Public Policy
Module 2 provides an overview of the connection between criminology and public policy. An informed and effective social policy is the byproduct of empirical work undertaken by dedicated social scientists who seek to understand the nature and extent of crime within the context of existing criminal justice and social policy. This module explores those natural and yet inextricable links between criminology and public policy, which often dilutes the impact and influence that research findings might reveal. Particular attention is given to understanding the policy-relevant research that in many instances has little to no measurable effect on public policy.
Learning Objectives
After completing this module, you should be able to:
- sequence the emergence of criminology as a theoretically oriented field of study.
- discuss the influence of criminal justice on the study of crime.
- describe the difference between criminology and criminal justice.
- examine arguments in favor of and against the participation of criminal justice in the study of crime.
- list ways that criminology informs public policy.
- define program evaluation as a method for assessing the process and impact of criminal justice programs.
- explain the significance of program evaluation as a method for assessing the process and impact of criminal justice programs.
- identify important types and components of program evaluation.
- describe some important evaluation studies in criminology and criminal justice.
- list various methods of evaluation research.
Summary
Criminology and public policy share a close and interconnected relationship. Criminology is the scientific study of crime, criminal behavior, and the criminal justice system. Public policy, on the other hand, refers to the actions and decisions made by governmental bodies to address societal issues and shape the overall functioning of society.
The link between criminology and public policy is multifaceted and revolves around the understanding, prevention, control, and response to crime. Criminological research and theories provide valuable insights into the causes and consequences of criminal behavior, which in turn inform the development and implementation of effective public policies.
Here are some key aspects of the link between criminology and public policy:
- Informing policy development – Criminological research helps policymakers understand the underlying causes of crime, such as social, economic, and psychological factors. This knowledge can guide the formulation of evidence-based policies that address these root causes and reduce criminal behavior.
- Crime prevention strategies – Criminologists study various crime prevention strategies and their effectiveness. These insights help policymakers design and implement targeted interventions to prevent crime, such as community policing initiatives, situational crime prevention measures, or rehabilitation programs for offenders.
- Criminal justice system reform – Criminological research critically examines the functioning and outcomes of the criminal justice system. It identifies areas of improvement, such as reducing recidivism rates, addressing racial or socio-economic disparities, or improving the fairness and efficiency of the system. This information can guide policymakers in reforming laws, policies, and practices within the criminal justice system.
- Evidence-based policy evaluation – Criminology plays a crucial role in evaluating the effectiveness of existing policies and programs aimed at crime reduction or offender rehabilitation. Through rigorous research methodologies, criminologists assess the impact of policies, helping policymakers make informed decisions about continuing, modifying, or discontinuing certain approaches.
- Public safety and risk assessment – Criminologists contribute to public policy by studying the risks and threats to public safety, such as terrorism, organized crime, or cybercrime. Their findings aid policymakers in developing strategies to mitigate these risks, enhance public safety, and allocate resources effectively.
- Shaping public opinion and discourse – Criminology, through its research findings, can shape public opinion and public discourse on crime-related issues. This influence can guide public policy by creating awareness, mobilizing public support for specific policies or reforms, and facilitating public engagement in decision-making processes.
It is important to recognize that the link between criminology and public policy is a dynamic and ongoing process. Criminologists and policymakers need to collaborate, share knowledge, and engage in an iterative dialogue to develop effective policies that promote public safety, crime prevention, and justice.
Key Takeaways
Click on the > to expand the related statement.
Overview of the Evidence-Based Approach
The evidence-based approach can be applied to policymaking in various fields. The first step is to identify the problem. That is, clearly define the problem that needs to be addressed. This could be a societal issue, a health concern, an educational gap, etc.
Second, conduct rigorous research to gather data and evidence about the problem. This could involve reviewing existing literature, conducting new studies, or analyzing data.
Third, conduct an analysis of the data, which requires the use statistical methods to analyze the data and draw conclusions. The goal is to understand the causes and effects of the problem, and to identify potential solutions.
Fourth, based on the evidence derived from the statistical analysis, develop policy proposals that are likely to address the problem effectively. These proposals should be grounded in the evidence, not just in theory or ideology.
The fifth step involves the implementation of the policy. That is, put the policy into action. This could involve passing legislation, launching programs, allocating resources, etc.
Sixth and arguably one of the most important steps involves evaluation. Meaning, after the policy has been implemented, conduct further research to evaluate its effectiveness. This could involve collecting new data, conducting surveys, etc.
Finally, results derived from the evaluation must contribute to the refining of the policy as needed. This could involve adjusting, scaling up successful initiatives, or trying new approaches.
This process ensures that policies are not just based on theory or ideology but are grounded in evidence about what works. It promotes accountability, transparency, and effectiveness in policymaking. It’s important to note that this is an iterative process – policies should be continually monitored, evaluated, and refined based on new evidence. This approach can be applied to any field, from healthcare and education to environmental policy and criminal justice. It requires a commitment to rigorous research, open-mindedness to the evidence, and a willingness to make policy decisions based on what the evidence shows, rather than what one might intuitively believe or prefer.
Key Terms/Concepts
Click on the following key term/concept to view the definition:
Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences (ACJS)
Agency Practice
American Society of Criminology (ASC)
Drug Abuse Resistance Education (D.A.R.E.®)
Efficiency Analysis
Evaluation Research
Evidence-Based Criminology
Expert Testimony
Formative Evaluations
Gang Resistance Education and Training (G.R.E.A.T.®)
Impact Evaluation
Intensive Supervision Programs (ISP)
Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment
Legislative Process
Needs Assessment
Peer Review
Process Evaluation
Public Policy
Summative Evaluations
White Papers
Modern Application
Cybercriminology – combines coursework within the behavioral sciences and Computer Science to study the growing problem of computer crime.
- Watch TEDx Talk Cyber Crime Isn’t About Computers: It’s About Behavior (Anderson, 2017) [also embedded below]
- Listen to Ransomware and Other Cyberattacks on K-12 Schools:
Want to learn more about the study of Cybercriminology? Then CLICK HERE and explore the British Journal of Cyber Criminology (BJCC). The BJCC is a peer-reviewed online (open access) journal focused on the criminal activities that occur within the cyber environment, such as those involving computer networks, information systems, and the internet.
Read, Review, Watch and Listen
- Read Chapter 3: Criminology and Public Policy by Todd R. Clear, John Jay College of Criminal Justice and Natasha A. Frost, Northeastern University (Clear & Frost, 2009)
- Print a copy or have access to this reading via a digital device for in class review and discussion.
- To support the student’s reading of the article, they can listen to a recorded version of the same. Note that listening to the article is not a substitute for a careful and directed reading of the document.
This chapter:
- highlights the complex relationship between criminology and public policy, emphasizing that despite criminology’s natural relevance to policy matters, its impact on policymaking has been limited historically due to various academic and institutional barriers.
- discusses the emergence and evolution of criminology, explaining how it initially focused on understanding crime through theoretical perspectives, while the field of criminal justice developed later to examine and assess the functioning of criminal justice institutions.
- explores the “what works” movement in criminology, advocating for evidence-based policies grounded in rigorous research and systematic evaluations to guide interventions in crime prevention, corrections, and policing.
- addresses the debate on whether criminologists should engage directly in policy advocacy, presenting arguments both for and against active involvement, including ethical obligations to prevent injustice and concerns over politicization of research findings.
- examines how criminologists can influence policy through individual efforts, such as publishing policy-relevant research and participating in media, as well as through collective actions by professional organizations advocating for evidence-based practices and responsible use of crime data.
2. Voluntarily read Chapter 50: Program Evaluation, by Jodi Lane, University of Florida (Lane, 2009)
- Print a copy or have access to this reading via a digital device for in class review and discussion.
- To support the student’s reading of the article, they can listen to a recorded version of the same. Note that listening to the article is not a substitute for a careful and directed reading of the document.
This chapter:
- explains the purpose of program evaluation in criminal justice, emphasizing its role in assessing the effectiveness of programs aimed at reducing crime and aiding offenders, thus helping policymakers allocate limited resources efficiently.
- outlines different types of evaluations, including needs assessments, process evaluations, impact evaluations, and efficiency analyses, each serving a unique function in evaluating whether programs meet their intended goals and provide value.
- highlights the importance of collaboration between researchers and practitioners, noting that evaluators bring scientific rigor to assess program outcomes, while practitioners provide practical insights necessary for accurate evaluations.
- discusses the challenges in measuring program impact, stressing the need for comparison groups and well-defined outcome measures to determine whether observed changes in clients result directly from the program rather than other factors.
- underscores the value of process evaluations, which help ensure that a program’s delivery aligns with its original design, providing insights for improvement if discrepancies or implementation issues are identified.
3. Review Department of Justice’s What is G.R.E.A.T. (accessed, January 2024)
4. Watch United States Department of Justice (DOJ). Office of Justice Programs (OJP). National Institute of Justice (NIJ). Strengthen Science. Advance Justice.
5. Watch the National Institute of Justice’s Desistance From Crime: Implications for Research, Policy, and Practice (Start @ 6:33 – Stop @ 1:36:57) [NIJ, November 29, 2021]
6. Watch York County Virginia U.S. YPSO D A R E Program 2023 [located below]
7. Watch G.R.E.A.T. Summer Program
The Chicago Police Department is helping kids have a G.R.E.A.T. summer! The Gang Resistance Education And Training program is a gang violence prevention initiative. Dozens of 3rd-8th graders from across the city are taking part in a summer program focusing on life skills, self-esteem building and sports. It’s all to help keep kids safe and active, and plant seeds of positive interaction with the police.
8. Listen to PBS WHYY: The police experiment that changed what we know about foot patrol (by Liz Tung, November 15, 2019) [last accessed, August 2023) [click on “Listen” link within the webpage]
9. Listen to the National Institute of Justice’s (NIJ) Justice Today Podcast: Progressing from Evidence to Action (21.27). Scroll down to the featured item from within the podcast list.
To access the PPT file, click HERE. Note that files are updated regularly and as such might change in content and appearance.
Read, Review, Watch and Listen to all listed materials by the due date listed within the course LMS (i.e., Blackboard) site.
Contact the professor with any course-related questions
Click HERE to report any needed updates, e.g., broken links.
Activity – Understanding the Role of Criminology in Combating Cybercrimes Like Ransomware
STOP!!
Students should review the course syllabus to determine the assignment of this activity.
This is a copy of the module’s activity that students find within Blackboard. For that reason, refer to the Activities page to submit your work for review.
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to explore examples of how social scientists, most specifically criminologists, have contributed to public policy within the digital environment.
Overview
Criminologists have made significant contributions to the understanding and combating of cybercrime. For example, they continue to provide accurate information to policymakers to develop effective strategies to combat cybercrime. e.g., Better Cybercrime Metrics Act (May 2022). Their research findings can inform policy decisions, ensuring they are based on evidence rather than just theory or ideology.
Those in the social sciences have conducted extensive research to better understand the criminogenic environment of the online world. They have expounded on existing theory to explain why individuals engage in cybercrime within the context of traditional theoretical frameworks, such as Rational Choice Theory, Social Learning Theory, Strain Theory, Routine Activities Theory, and Self-Control Theory. Improved theoretical models help us understand the various motives, opportunities, and situational factors that contribute to cybercrime and in turn provide the basis for policy-based recommendations.
Because cybercrime is a complex issue, it requires knowledge from various fields such as Criminology, Victimology, Sociology, Internet Science, and Computer Science. Therefore, criminologists have embraced an interdisciplinary approach, which is crucial for a comprehensive understanding of cybercrime and its prevention. To that end, criminologists play a crucial role in advancing our understanding of cybercrime, training future cybersecurity professionals, informing policy decisions, and promoting an interdisciplinary approach to tackling cybercrime.
Instructions
- Review Module 2 Key Terms/Concepts
- Read The U.S. Is Less Prepared to Fight Cybercrime Than It Could Be (GAO, August 29, 2023)
- Review U.S. Ransomware attacks on schools threaten student data nationwide by Ash-har Quraishi, Ari Sen, Scott Pham, Amy Corral, Taylor Johnston (August 26, 2024)
- Listen to Ransomware and Other Cyberattacks on K-12 Schools [also attached to this activity]
Answer the following questions:
- Identify some of the challenges and limitations that federal law enforcement agencies face in tracking and most specifically reporting of cybercrime? Describe how could criminologists help overcome some of these challenges?
- Consider the impact and consequences of cybercrime on individuals, schools, businesses, and governments. How might social science research help these entities protect themselves from cybercrime and mitigate the damages?
- Revisit the above listed list of Key Terms/Concepts and identify the most appropriate research approach and then explain how that might assist with the coordination between various governmental agencies responsible for combating cybercrime.
Key Terms/Concepts
Cybercrime – Criminal activities that target a computer or network to cause damage or steal information, or the use of computers to conduct criminal activity, like using the internet to facilitate the sale or exchange of illicit goods.
Department of Justice (DOJ) – The federal department responsible for enforcing the law and administering justice, which oversees several law enforcement agencies, such as the FBI, Secret Service, and DEA.
National Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) – A system that collects reports on crime from law enforcement across the country, maintained by the FBI.
Public Policy – Refers to the decisions, actions, and guidelines adopted by governments or public authorities to address societal issues, regulate behavior, and promote the collective well-being of the public. It encompasses a wide range of laws, regulations, programs, and initiatives that shape and guide the actions of governments and public institutions.
Ransomware – A type of malicious software that encrypts the victim’s files or blocks access to the computer system until a ransom is paid.
Refer to the course learning management system (LMS); that is Blackboard (BB), for the correct due date. In addition, submit your work via BB for grading.
Discussion Questions
- How do you evaluate the arguments for and against criminologists’ participation in public policy? Which position do you find more convincing and why?
- What are the advantages and challenges of using random assignment in program evaluation?
- How can program evaluators balance the needs and expectations of different stakeholders?
- What are some of the challenges and opportunities for criminologists to engage with the media and influence public opinion on crime and justice issues?
- What are some examples of unintended consequences of programs and how can they be measured and reported?
- What are some of the ethical and professional implications of taking formal organizational positions on controversial or contentious criminological debates? How should criminological associations balance the need for scientific rigor and policy relevance?
- identify the most effective way to evaluate the program, “A new scared straight: Project STORM“
Supplemental Resources
- Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences (ACJS)
- American Society of Criminology (ASC)
- Campbell Collaboration
- Chicago Data Portal
- Chicago Police Department CLEARMap
- National Institute of Justice (NIJ)
- UCI Center for Evidence-Based Corrections
- Consortium of Social Science Associations (COSSA)
References
- Clear, T. R., & Frost, N. A. (2009). Criminology and Public Policy. In J. M. Miller (Ed.), 21st Century Reference Series. 21st Century Criminology: A Reference Handbook (Vol. 1, pp. 18-26). SAGE Reference. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3201600012/GVRL?u=cod_lrc&sid=bookmark-GVRL&xid=abc720f9
- Lane, J. (2009). Program Evaluation. In J. M. Miller (Ed.), 21st Century Reference Series. 21st Century Criminology: A Reference Handbook (Vol. 1, pp. 428-436). SAGE Reference. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3201600062/GVRL?u=cod_lrc&sid=bookmark-GVRL&xid=299b11a2
- Gang Resistance Education and Training. National Gang Center. https://nationalgangcenter.ojp.gov/spt/Programs/68. Accessed 9 Jan. 2024.
- United States Department of Justice (DOJ). Office of Justice Programs (OJP). National Institute of Justice (NIJ). Strengthen Science. Advance Justice. https://cod.pressbooks.pub/app/uploads/sites/148/2023/08/nij-brochure-flier.pdf. Accessed 9 Jan. 2024.
- National Institute of Justice (NIJ). Desistance From Crime Implications for Research, Policy, and Practice. https://youtu.be/NRkTRL5Ie34?feature=shared
- York County Virginia. YPSO D A R E Program 2023. https://youtu.be/_fxe5RWSdoo?feature=shared. Accessed 9 Jan. 2024.
- G.R.E.A.T. Summer Program. https://www.facebook.com/watch/?v=442653466325917&ref=sharing. Accessed 9 Jan. 2024.
- PBS WHYY. The police experiment that changed what we know about foot patrol (Liz Tung, Nov. 19, 2019). Accessed 9 Jan. 2024.
- National Institute of Justice (NIJ). Progressing from evidence to action. [21.27 mins]. Accessed 9 Jan. 2024.
An international association established in 1963 to foster professional and scholarly activities in the field of criminal justice. ACJS promotes criminal justice education, research, and policy analysis within the discipline of criminal justice for both educators and practitioners.
Describes methods and approaches that criminal justice agencies, i.e., law enforcement, courts, corrections, rely on during prevention, enforcement, and punishment activities.
An international organization whose members pursue scholarly, scientific, and professional knowledge concerning the measurement, etiology, consequences, prevention, control, and treatment of crime and delinquency.
A validated, copyrighted, comprehensive drug and violence prevention education program for children in kindergarten through 12th grade. D.A.R.E.® represents a collaborative effort between school and law enforcement personnel. The program is nationally coordinated by D.A.R.E.® America, with input received from State and local agencies and communities.
Not as common as other forms of program evaluation in criminal justice as impact and cost are often of greater significance. Cost-benefit analysis and cost-effectiveness analysis are two basic types and used to determine whether the benefits gained from a particular program/initiative justify the cost.
Refers to a systematic and objective investigation conducted to assess the effectiveness, efficiency, relevance, and impact of a program, policy, intervention, or project. It aims to gather evidence and information that can inform decision-making, improve program design and implementation, and ultimately contribute to better outcomes.
Evaluation research involves the use of various research methods, such as surveys, interviews, observations, and data analysis, to collect and analyze data related to the specific program or intervention under examination. The key focus is on evaluating the extent to which the program or intervention achieves its stated objectives and desired outcomes, and identifying factors that contribute to its success or failure.
The evaluation process typically includes defining clear evaluation questions, developing appropriate evaluation designs and methods, collecting, and analyzing data, interpreting findings, and providing actionable recommendations. It may also involve assessing the program's efficiency in terms of resource utilization, cost-effectiveness, and sustainability.
Evaluation research plays a crucial role in informing evidence-based decision-making, improving program effectiveness, and facilitating accountability. It is widely used in various fields, including education, healthcare, social sciences, public policy, and nonprofit organizations, to evaluate the impact and outcomes of interventions, policies, and initiatives.
An approach that requires that high-quality evaluation research form the basis of policy or practice in the field of criminology and criminal justice.
Refers to the presentation of specialized knowledge or opinions by a qualified expert during a legal proceeding, such as a trial, hearing, or legislative session. Expert witnesses are individuals, e.g., criminologists, with recognized expertise and experience in a specific field or subject matter relevant to the case at hand. They are called upon to provide their professional opinions, interpretations, or analysis to assist the court or jury in understanding complex issues or technical matters beyond the understanding of the average person.
In the context of program evaluation, are assessments conducted during the development and implementation phases of a program or intervention. These evaluations are primarily focused on providing feedback, identifying strengths and weaknesses, and informing ongoing improvements to the program. Formative evaluations are an essential component of the evaluation process, as they help shape and refine the program as it evolves.
An evidence-based and effective gang and violence prevention program built around school-based, law enforcement officer-instructed classroom curricula. The Program is intended as an immunization against delinquency, youth violence, and gang membership for children in the years immediately before the prime ages for introduction into gangs and delinquent behavior.
A specific type of evaluation research that focuses on assessing the causal impact or effects of a program, policy, intervention, or project. It aims to determine whether and to what extent the intervention has achieved its intended outcomes, and whether any observed changes can be attributed to the intervention rather than other factors.
The primary goal of an impact evaluation is to understand the cause-and-effect relationship between the intervention and the observed outcomes. It involves comparing the outcomes of the group or individuals who received the intervention (the treatment group) with those who did not (the control group) or with a baseline measure before the intervention was implemented.
Impact evaluations employ rigorous research methods and techniques to ensure that the observed changes can be confidently attributed to the intervention. Commonly used methods include randomized controlled trials (RCTs), quasi-experimental designs, and matching techniques. These methods aim to minimize biases and confounding factors, allowing for a more accurate estimation of the intervention's impact.
The evaluation process typically involves defining clear evaluation questions, developing appropriate research designs, collecting data through surveys, interviews, observations, or other means, analyzing data using statistical or qualitative techniques, interpreting the findings, and drawing conclusions about the intervention's impact.
Impact evaluations are frequently conducted in various fields, including education, healthcare, social services, development programs, and public policy. They provide valuable evidence on the effectiveness, efficiency, scalability, and sustainability of interventions, helping policymakers, program implementers, and funders make informed decisions about allocating resources, improving program design, and maximizing desired outcomes.
Also known as Intensive Supervision Probation (ISP), is an approach to community-based supervision of individuals who have been convicted of a crime and are serving a probation sentence. ISP aims to provide a higher level of supervision and support than traditional probation while still allowing the individuals to remain in the community instead of being incarcerated.
ISP typically involves more frequent and intensive contact between probation officers and probationers compared to standard probation. The specific components and requirements of ISP can vary depending on jurisdiction and the nature of the offense, but common features may include: (1) increased supervision, (2) enhanced surveillance, (3) treatment and support services, and (4) case management.
Conducted between 1972 and 1973, was a landmark study in the field of policing and crime prevention. The experiment aimed to evaluate the impact of different levels of police presence, specifically preventive patrol, on crime rates and public perception of safety.
The experiment was designed and implemented by researchers from the Kansas City Police Department, in collaboration with criminologists. The study divided the city into three groups: one group received traditional levels of police patrol, another group experienced greatly increased patrol, and a third group had almost no patrol presence. The experiment employed a randomized control trial design, with different areas assigned to each group.
The key findings of the Kansas City Preventive Patrol Experiment challenged the conventional wisdom that a high level of police presence, in the form of preventive patrol, was necessary to deter crime and enhance public safety.
Refers to the series of steps and procedures followed by a legislative body, such as a parliament, congress, or legislature, to propose, debate, amend, and enact laws. It involves the development, consideration, and approval of legislation, including bills and resolutions, that govern various aspects of a country's legal framework.
A systematic process used to identify and evaluate the needs, gaps, and priorities of a specific target population or community. It involves gathering information and analyzing data to understand the current situation, assess the needs and challenges faced by the population, and determine the resources and interventions required to address those needs effectively.
A needs assessment is a valuable tool used in various fields, such as public health, education, social services, community development, and organizational planning. It helps ensure that resources are allocated efficiently, interventions are tailored to the specific needs of the population, and desired outcomes are achieved effectively.
A rigorous evaluation process used to assess the quality, validity, and credibility of scholarly work before it is published. It involves having experts in the relevant field, known as peers or referees, review and provide feedback on an author's work, such as research articles, conference papers, or book manuscripts. The purpose of peer review is to ensure that published research meets high academic standards and contributes to the advancement of knowledge.
A systematic assessment and analysis of the implementation, delivery, and operations of a program, intervention, or policy. It focuses on understanding how the program is being implemented and the processes involved in delivering the intended services or activities. The primary aim of process evaluation is to provide insights into program operations, identify areas for improvement, and assess fidelity to the program model.
Refers to the decisions, actions, and guidelines adopted by governments or public authorities to address societal issues, regulate behavior, and promote the collective well-being of the public. It encompasses a wide range of laws, regulations, programs, and initiatives that shape and guide the actions of governments and public institutions.
In the context of program evaluation, summative evaluations play a crucial role in assessing the overall effectiveness and impact of a program. They provide insights into whether the program's objectives and goals have been achieved and whether the intended outcomes have been realized. Summative evaluations are typically conducted at the conclusion of the program's implementation and focus on making judgments about the program's success or effectiveness.
Detailed and authoritative documents that presents information, analysis, and proposals on a particular topic or issue. It is typically produced by a government, organization, or company to educate readers, provide insights, and offer recommendations or solutions related to a specific subject.
White papers are often used to address complex problems, introduce new policies or strategies, or present research findings. They serve as informative and persuasive documents, aiming to influence opinions, shape debates, and guide decision-making. White papers are widely used in various fields, including government, business, technology, healthcare, and education.
