Module 4 explores the concept of social construction, particularly focusing on its relevance in the context of crime, deviance, and societal reactions. It delves into how social meanings are formed, maintained, and challenged through interactions, power dynamics, and theoretical frameworks. The module provides opportunities to consider what is deemed criminal and how society responds to criminal behavior that are not fixed or objective realities but are shaped by social, cultural, and historical factors. This perspective challenges the notion that crime is an inherent and absolute concept and highlights how various social forces contribute to defining, interpreting, and responding to deviant behavior. Moreover, crime and deviance are the inevitable result of central contradictions within societies very power infrastructure. The chapter reviews key aspects of the social construction of crime that include how we define crime, the implication of social norms and values, the impact of power and control, the influence of media and public perception, the social and economic context of crime and deviance, the artifact of labeling, and definitions of deviance from the position of social control.

Summary

The social construction of crime means that crime is not an inherent or fixed idea but is shaped by social processes and interactions. It indicates that society, through its institutions, norms, values, and laws, creates the definition of what is considered criminal behavior and decides how to handle it.

According to the social constructionist perspective, crime isn’t a fixed or universal category but varies across different times, cultures, and societies. What is considered a crime in one society or historical period might not be seen as such in another. The definitions and understanding of crime are shaped by social, cultural, and political factors, and they can evolve over time.

Social constructionists argue that crime results from social interactions, power relations, and social norms. They stress that crime isn’t just a consequence of individual deviance or sickness but is shaped by wider social factors. These include social inequality, economic conditions, political systems, cultural beliefs, and the actions of social institutions, such as the criminal justice system, all playing a role in how crime is created and understood.

For example, the social constructionist view suggests that acts labeled as crimes are often decided by those in power within society. Laws and regulations made by lawmakers and enforced by the criminal justice system reflect the interests and values of dominant groups. This perspective also acknowledges that certain groups or behaviors are often unfairly labeled as criminal because of social biases, prejudices, and systemic inequalities.

The definition of crime differs across societies and eras. Acts that are seen as criminal in one culture or time period might be accepted or even admired in another. This shows that criminality is not a universal or biologically fixed idea but is shaped by social norms, values, and power systems.

Social norms significantly influence what behaviors are acceptable and what are not. These norms are often shaped by cultural, religious, and historical factors. Actions that break these norms are more likely to be considered criminal, even if the harm caused is minor.

The social construction of crime is also shaped by power dynamics in society. Those in positions of authority influence the legal system and determine which actions are considered criminal. This can lead to the criminalization of certain behaviors that oppose the status quo or threaten the interests of the powerful.

Media portrayal of crime and deviant behavior is vital in shaping public perceptions. Media outlets tend to focus on sensational or rare crimes, which can lead people to believe that certain crimes are more common or dangerous than they truly are. This impacts public opinion and may result in calls for stricter laws and tougher punishments.

Crime rates are often shaped by social and economic factors like poverty, inequality, and unemployment. Disadvantaged groups may be more prone to commit crimes because of limited opportunities and systemic barriers. The way society responds to crime is also affected by these issues, as law enforcement and justice systems might unfairly focus on and punish certain communities.

Labeling theory is closely connected to the social construction of crime. It suggests that when someone is labeled as a criminal, it can create a self-fulfilling prophecy, where the person adopts the criminal identity and commits more crimes because of society’s reactions.

The social construction of crime is linked to the broader idea of deviance. Deviance includes any behavior that strays from social norms, which can differ across cultures and societies. Social control methods, such as laws and law enforcement, help keep order and ensure people follow dominant norms. These mechanisms also play an important role in shaping how crime is understood.

Overall, the social construction of crime shows that crime is not an objective fact, but a socially built idea formed by various social, cultural, and political influences. It promotes a critical look at how certain actions are labeled as criminal and what these labels mean for individuals and society since crime is not an innate or natural category but one created through social processes. What a society considers criminal depends on its institutions, values, and power structures—and these definitions evolve over time and differ across cultures.

Focal Points

Relativity of crime – What counts as a crime in one society or time may be legal or celebrated in another.

Role of power – Those in authority influence laws and enforcement, often reflecting the interests of dominant groups.

Social norms and values – Norms, shaped by cultural and historical contexts, help determine which behaviors are labeled deviant or criminal.

Media influence – Media coverage often amplifies certain crimes, shaping public perception and policy through moral panics.

Economic and social context – Inequality, poverty, and structural disadvantage increase vulnerability to both criminalization and criminal activity.

Labeling theory – Once labeled as “criminal,” individuals may internalize that identity, reinforcing cycles of deviance.

Deviance and social control – Deviance refers broadly to norm-violating behavior, while mechanisms of social control, laws, policing, institutions, define and manage it.

Ultimately, the social constructionist perspective encourages us to question assumptions about crime and deviance, exploring how definitions develop, whose interests they benefit, and how they influence lived experiences.

Test Your Knowledge

Print a copy of the following worksheet and bring it to class! As an alternative, complete the worksheet while you read through the summary located above.

Module 4-Social Construction of Crime_Summary

Key Terms/Concepts

Click on the following key term/concept to view the definition:

Claims Making
Constitutive Theory
Contextual Constructionism
Crime
Deviance
Edwin Lemert (1967)
Folk Devils
Howard Becker (1963)
Labeling Theory
Mala In Se
Moral Crusader
Moral Panic
Nominalist Philosophy
Postmodernist Constructionism
Primary Deviance
Radical Constructionism
Reification
Replacement Theory
Secondary Deviance
Social Control
Social Construction
Social Constructionism
Social Norms
Stigma
Symbolic Interactionism
Values

Read, Review, Watch and Listen

1. Read Chapter 34: Social Construction of Crime by Stuart Henry, San Diego State University (Henry, 2009)

• Print a copy or have access to this reading via a digital device for in class review and discussion.
• To support the student’s reading of the article, they can listen to a recorded version of the same. Note that listening to the article is not a substitute for a careful and directed reading of the document.

This chapter:

• explains that crime is a socially constructed idea, influenced by those in power who define certain actions as criminal, often mirroring the values and interests of dominant groups in society.
• discusses the idea of moral panics, where media and moral entrepreneurs boost societal fears about certain behaviors, causing increased concern and sometimes exaggerated responses to perceived threats.
• highlights the role of labeling theory, suggesting that labeling certain actions as criminal can shape individuals’ identities, potentially leading to more criminal behavior as they internalize the labels.
• emphasizes how crime definitions vary across different societies and historical periods, arguing that what is considered criminal behavior is not universal but shaped by cultural and social contexts.
• critiques how powerful interests shape the definition of crime, arguing that laws often target actions of less powerful groups while ignoring or minimizing offenses by those with greater socioeconomic influence.

2. Review Grinnell College’s Subcultures and Sociological focus on Moral Panic

• Moral panics are exaggerated reactions by society to perceived threats, popularized by Stanley Cohen’s 1972 work on Mods and Rockers.
• The media amplifies moral panics by depicting events in exaggerated and stereotypical ways.
• Groups exploit moral panics to advance their agendas, framing themselves as experts or moral authorities.
• This is when media uses repeated, recognizable images to scapegoat subcultures.
• Historic and modern moral panics include issues such as comic books, video games, and music subcultures.

3. Review Moms, not cops, are the biggest roadblock to California’s new drug reform law (Lester Black, Alec Regimbal, SFGATE, July 17, 2003)

• Moral panics can emerge in response to different issues, such as youth subcultures, crime waves, immigration, or new technologies. They can have notable social and political effects, influencing public policy, shaping opinions, and affecting the lives of those targeted by the panic. Over time, moral panics might fade as the initial fears are debunked or alleviated, or they could transform into new forms as society changes.

4. Review Moral Panic and Folk Devils (Simply Psychology, August 2023) [last accessed February 2024]

• Stanley Cohen’s “Folk Devils and Moral Panics” is a groundbreaking sociological book published in 1972 that examines the idea of moral panics and their role in shaping how society defines deviance. This work offers important insights into how society reacts to perceived threats and how the media and authorities play a key role in escalating and maintaining these panics.
• Cohen uses the term “folk devils” to describe individuals or groups who become the main focus of societal anxiety and moral outrage during a moral panic. Folk devils are often depicted as threats to society’s values and norms. They are usually labeled as deviant and blamed for various social issues.
• According to Cohen, moral panics can escalate and sustain themselves through an “amplification spiral.” This happens when the media, law enforcement, and other social institutions fuel the panic by sensationalizing the issue and exaggerating the threat from folk devils. Consequently, public concern grows, leading to more social control measures and stigmatization of the targeted group.
• Like other scholars in the field, Cohen highlights the media’s influence in shaping and spreading moral panics. He states that the media often presents issues in a way that boosts their shock value and stirs public emotions. This sensationalism can help fuel the quick spread of moral panics.
• Cohen also discusses the idea of “deviancy amplification.” This refers to how societal reactions to deviant behavior can make the behavior worse or lead to more deviance. When folk devils are targeted and persecuted, they may respond by embracing their deviant identity more or engaging in more extreme actions. Moral panics often result in increased social control measures, including stricter laws and policies. This can have serious consequences for the individuals or groups labeled as folk devils, as they may face legal persecution, discrimination, and social exclusion.
• Cohen’s work emphasizes the recurring cycle of moral panics and how they reflect and shape societal norms and values. Moral panics often expose hidden anxieties and tensions within a society and can lead to social change, such as new laws, shifts in public opinion, or alterations in cultural norms.
• Cohen’s work offers a valuable framework for understanding how societies respond to perceived threats and how these reactions can lead to the creation of deviance and the escalation of social issues. It highlights the influence of the media, the criminal justice system, and public discourse in shaping and sustaining moral panics, and it remains a foundational text in sociology and criminology.

5. Review Revise Sociology’s overview of The social construction of crime (last accessed February 2024]

• The social construction of crime offers a valuable perspective for sociologists and criminologists to understand how crime is defined and addressed in various societies and contexts. It also questions the idea that crime is a fixed and objective reality that can be easily measured and controlled by laws and the criminal justice system. Instead, it demonstrates that crime is a complex and debated phenomenon that mirrors the values, interests, and power dynamics of different groups and actors within society.

6. Review It’s Time to Revisit the Satanic Panic By Alan Yuhas (March 31, 2021) [last accessed February 2024

• The New York Times article titled “The Satanic Panic: America’s War on Satanic Cults” explores the widespread moral panic in the 1980s and early 1990s in the United States, where baseless allegations of satanic ritual abuse prompted numerous investigations and prosecutions.
• The hysteria started in the early 1980s, triggered by the publication of the book “Michelle Remembers,” which described supposed satanic rituals. Despite its questionable credibility, this book fueled public fear and media sensationalism.
• The hysteria started in the early 1980s, sparked by the publication of the book “Michelle Remembers,” which described alleged satanic rituals. Despite its questionable credibility, this book fueled public fear and media sensationalism.
• Several daycare centers and their staff were accused of participating in satanic rituals and child abuse. Notable cases include the McMartin preschool trial in California, which became one of the longest and most expensive criminal trials in U.S. history, ultimately resulting in no convictions.
• Therapists and social workers, employing controversial techniques like recovered-memory therapy, unintentionally fostered false memories of satanic abuse in their patients. This resulted in many baseless accusations and wrongful convictions.
• Sensationalist media coverage heightened public fear, often portraying unverified claims as facts. This widespread media frenzy played a major role in sustaining the panic.
• By the mid-1990s, investigations showed a lack of physical evidence supporting the existence of organized satanic cults involved in widespread abuse. Many convictions were overturned, and the panic was acknowledged as a moral panic, a societal reaction driven by fear rather than fact

7. Watch Mod, Rockers, and Mora Panics (Luxury Milk, October 2009) [last accessed February 2024] – also embedded below.

• Moral Panic is a term used to describe a social phenomenon characterized by an exaggerated, widespread, and often irrational fear or concern over a perceived threat to societal values, norms, and moral order. It typically involves the amplification and sensationalization of a specific issue or group, often fueled by all forms of media, public opinion, and authorities.

8. Watch Save The Boy? 4 Moral Thinkers Have Different Opinions (Sprouts, 2023) [last accessed February 2024]- also embedded below.

• Moral development theory holds that individuals become criminal when they have not successfully completed their intellectual development from child- to adulthood. An early theory was proposed by Jean Piaget, who posited four developmental stages.  Lawrence Kohlberg offered an expanded theory of morality with a six-stage typology.  In Kohlberg’s first stage, people only obey the law because they are afraid of being punished if they don’t. By the sixth stage, obedience to the law becomes an obligation that is willingly assumed, and people chose not to violate the law because they value the principle of fairness and believe in interpersonal justice. Those who have evolved to higher stages of moral reasoning are unlikely to commit crimes because they appreciate not only their own needs, but the needs and interests of others as well.

9. Watch Theory & Deviance: Crash Course Sociology #19 (CrashCourse, Jul 24, 2017) [last accessed September 2025) – also embedded below.

10. Watch Labelling Theory Explained (The Sociology Professor, Sep. 20, 2024) [last accessed September 2025] – also embedded below.

11. Watch What is Crime? (OER – Foundations of Criminology, July 2025) [last accessed September 2025).

12. Listen to Is pornography really warping our brains, or is it a moral panic? (Joshua B. Grubbs, Opinion Contributor, 01/25/24) [last accessed February 2024]

13. Listen to A 6-year-old shooter raises tough questions for the criminal justice system (NPR, January 11, 2023)

• Whether and to what extent the criminal law should reflect and enforce the morality of the society it represents is a classic debate in criminal law literature.
• While most people agree that actions that harm others should be controlled, not everyone sees consensual sex work as harmful.

Types of Crime

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Discussion Questions

1. What are some examples of moral panics and claims-making about crime and deviance in your society?
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using a social constructionist approach to study crime and deviance?
3. What are the different types of social constructionism, such as radical, contextual, and postmodernist? How do they differ in their assumptions about reality, knowledge, and power?
4. How do moral entrepreneurs, media, and other agents of social control construct crime and deviance through claims-making, moral panics, and labeling?
5. How can social constructionism be used to challenge and transform existing definitions and responses to crime and deviance?
6. What are some alternative ways of defining and addressing social problems and harms?

Supplemental Resources

• Example of replacement theory in action – Fringe conspiracy theory has now become mainstream [last accessed, November 2023]
• Bill O’Reilly: Do Violent Video Games Make You Violent?
  • Violence and Video Games
    • Ever since the inception of video games in the 1970s, people have questioned what effects these games have on those that play them. The first major concern about the violence in video games came with the release of the 1976 game “Death Race” (Kent 2001). In “Death Race,” the objective is for players to run over as many “gremlins” with their car as possible, but the general public believed the game involved killing innocent pedestrians and promoted such behavior in real life, causing an outcry against the game (Ferguson et al. 2008). Similar concerns are still very apparent today. In particular, many concerned parents and lawmakers accuse the video game franchise “Grand Theft Auto” where players steal cars, rob banks, and flee the police of promoting this type of behavior in those that play the game, especially adolescents, because players start to lose sight of what is fake and what is reality.
  • Are Video Games Really Causing Violence?
    • If the media seem to claim that violent video games cause real-life violent acts, where does empirical research stand on this issue? Some studies such as Anderson and Dill’s (2000) research on the relationship between aggressive behavior and video games claims that exposure to such games had a negative impact on academic achievement and increased the frequency of aggressive thoughts and behavior. However, as Ferguson (2008) argues, such increases in aggressive behavior are so minor that they do not equate to an individual committing an actual crime. In addition, Ferguson (2008) suggests that because nearly all young males are exposed to violent video games, studying the video game-aggression link is a waste of time and resources and more time should be spent investigating the other factors that have a role in mass violence. In addition, although the popularity of violent video games is increasing, overall rates of violent crime are decreasing.
• LGBTQ History Month: The early days of America’s AIDS crisis (NBC News, Oct. 2018) [last accessed, Feb. 2024]
• AIDS: homophobic and moralistic images of 1980s still haunt our view of HIV – that must change (The Conversation, Nov. 2018) [last accessed, Feb. 2024]
• Crack Babies: A Tale From the Drug Wars (New York Times, May 2013) [last accessed, Feb. 2024]