Module 8 introduces an area of criminological inquiry called social process theory. Social process theory is a criminological view that highlights how criminal behavior is learned and influenced through social interactions and relationships. Unlike theories that focus on biological traits or structural inequalities, social process perspectives claim that crime comes from everyday socialization, what people learn, who teaches it, and how they adopt social norms. This module covers the three main branches of social process theory: social learning, control, and labeling. Together, these approaches show how family, peers, schools, and society shape conformity and deviance.

Summary

Social learning theory expands on Edwin Sutherland’s differential association theory, which suggested that criminal behavior is learned through communication and interaction with others who favor crime. Ronald Akers later enhanced this model by incorporating principles from behavioral psychology, explaining that individuals learn not only through association but also through reinforcement and imitation.

Akers identified four core elements of social learning theory:

1. Differential Association – interaction with groups that support or oppose crime.
2. Definitions – attitudes and meanings associated with behavior.
3. Differential Reinforcement – consequences such as rewards and punishments that follow behavior.
4. Imitation – the act of modeling or copying others’ actions.

Empirical studies, such as the Boys Town and Iowa projects, showed that associations with delinquent peers and reinforcement patterns are strong predictors of delinquency and substance use. Social learning theory later expanded into a broader framework called Social Structure and Social Learning (SSSL), which links structural conditions like class and community to individual learning processes.

Control theories focus on explaining why most people conform rather than why some deviate. Travis Hirschi’s Social Bond Theory (1969) identifies four elements that prevent delinquency: attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief. When social bonds weaken, individuals are more likely to break norms.

Hirschi and Michael Gottfredson later developed the General Theory of Crime (1990), which focuses on self-control. They claim that low self-control, formed early in life through inadequate parenting and discipline, predicts all types of crime and similar behaviors. People with low self-control tend to be impulsive, risk-seeking, and insensitive to others.

Control theories also acknowledge informal mechanisms—such as family supervision, school involvement, and religious participation—as important influences. When these social controls weaken, the chance of deviant behavior goes up. Policy efforts focus on strengthening families, schools, and communities to support pro-social norms.

Labeling theory emerged from symbolic interactionism and focuses on how being labeled as “deviant” can shape identity and future behavior. Frank Tannenbaum (1938) introduced the concept of “tagging,” describing how society’s reaction to deviance can amplify criminal behavior. Howard Becker and Edwin Lemert later expanded on this idea, distinguishing between primary deviance (initial rule breaking) and secondary deviance (behavior that results from societal reaction and internalization of a deviant identity).

Labeling can cause stigmatization, push people out of mainstream opportunities, and create a self-fulfilling prophecy where the person keeps offending. In contrast, John Braithwaite’s Reintegrative Shaming Theory (1989) focuses on restorative methods that disapprove of the act but still respect the person, helping them reintegrate into society.

Policy implications of labeling theory emphasize diversion, de-stigmatization, and rehabilitation programs that minimize the negative effects of formal labeling.

Social process theories explain how crime develops through everyday social interactions instead of relying solely on inherent traits or structural disadvantages.

• Social learning theories emphasize how behaviors are learned and strengthened through communication and imitation.
• Control theories highlight the significance of strong social bonds and self-control in promoting conformity.
• Labeling theory looks at how society’s reactions and labels influence identity.

Together, these perspectives show that criminal behavior is flexible and can be shaped by positive socialization, community involvement, and programs that develop self-control and promote pro-social behavior.

Test Your Knowledge

Print a copy of the following worksheet and bring it to class! As an alternative, complete the worksheet while you read through the following key terms and concepts summary located below: Worksheet

Key Terms/Concepts

Click on the following key term/concept to view the definition:

Containment Theory
Control Balance Theory
Differential Association
Differential Association-Reinforcement Theory
Differential Identification
Edwin Sutherland
Frank Tannenbaum (1938)
General Theory of Crime (GTC)
Howard Becker (1963)
John Braithwaite (1989)
Labeling Theory
Primary and Secondary Deviance
Reintegrative Shaming
Ronald L. Akers (1966)
Social Bond Theory
Social Control Theories
Social Bond Theory
Social Learning Theory
Social Structure and Social Learning (SSSL)
Socialization
Stanley Cohen (1995)
Stigmatization
Symbolic Interaction
Travis Hirschi (1969)

Read, Review, Watch and Listen

1. Read Chapter 37: Social Learning Theory by Ronald L. Akers, University of Florida and Wesley G. Jennings, University of Louisville

• Print a copy or have access to this reading via a digital device for in-class review and discussion.
• To support the student’s reading of the article, they can listen to a recorded version of the same. Note that listening to the article is not a substitute for a careful and directed reading of the document

This chapter:

• provides an overview of Akers’s social learning theory, highlighting its basis in Sutherland’s differential association theory and including principles from behavioral psychology, such as those by Skinner and Bandura.
• explains that Burgess and Akers’s differential association-reinforcement theory aims to address the limitations of Sutherland’s work by explaining the learning process through operant conditioning, emphasizing how reinforcement and punishment influence behavior.
• emphasizes four core components of social learning theory: differential association, definitions, differential reinforcement, and imitation, each contributing uniquely to the learning and continuation of criminal or deviant behavior.
• reviews empirical support for the theory, discussing landmark studies like the Boys Town and Iowa studies, which showed that social learning variables significantly explained substance use and delinquent behavior among adolescents.
• also discusses the expansion of social learning theory into a macro-level framework called social structure and social learning (SSSL), which suggests that social structures indirectly influence behavior through social learning processes.

2. Read Chapter 29: Labeling and Symbolic Interaction Theories by Sean Maddan, University of Tampa and Ineke Haen Marshall

• Print a copy or have access to this reading via a digital device for in-class review and discussion.
• To support the student’s reading of the article, they can listen to a recorded version of the same. Note that listening to the article is not a substitute for a careful and directed reading of the document

This chapter:

• explores the origins and progression of labeling theory.
• describes Tannenbaum’s “tagging,” Becker’s deviance typology, and Braithwaite’s reintegrative shaming.
• examines implications for juvenile justice policy and restorative practices.

3. Review Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP): Mentoring Programs for Youth

a. Details national mentoring and prevention programs (like JUMP) grounded in social process theory, emphasizing pro-social modeling.

4. Watch Self control: Dan Ariely at TEDxDuke (April 18, 2011) – also embedded below

a. In 1990, Hirschi and Michael Gottfredson proposed a general theory of crime (GTC) based on control theory concepts.

b. The theory asserts that low self-control accounts for all types of crime, always.

c. Self-control is acquired early in life and low self-control combined with impulsivity is the premier individual-level cause of crime.

d. A well-developed social bond will result in the creation of effective mechanisms of self-control.

5. Watch The Rescue Me Project | The Identity of the JUMP (The Rescue Me Project, December 2, 2021) – also embedded below

a. Social process theories emphasize crime prevention programs that work to enhance self-control and build prosocial bonds.

b. The Juvenile Mentoring Program (JUMP) is run by the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP).

c. JUMP attempts to build strong social bonds while teaching positive values to juveniles.

d. JUMP places at-risk youth in a one-on-one relationship with favorable adult role models

e. Both youth and mentors are very positive when rating the mentoring experience

6. Watch Labeling Theory (desoriente0, September 2013)

a. Society’s response to offenders is important.

b. It determines the individual future of those labeled as criminals.

c. It may contribute to increased criminality by reducing the behavioral options available to labeled offenders.

d. Frank Tannenbaum’s 1938 research used the term “tagging” to describe what happens to offenders after arrest, conviction, and sentencing.

7.  Watch PBS Frontline – “Stickup Kid” (2014)

a. Follows a juvenile offender’s labeling and reentry experience, illustrating the self-fulfilling prophecy and society’s reaction.

8. Listen to Episode 84. Self-Control and Crime with Michael Gottfredson (The Criminology Academy, Oct. 2023)

a. Discussion of the general theory of crime, development of self-control, and its application to contemporary settings.

9. Listen to Caught: Introducing Charged (NPR – WBEZ Chicago, May 8, 2019) [last accessed August 2023]

a. Examines how labeling, public perception, and systemic responses impact individuals navigating the criminal justice system.

Khan Academy – “Introduction to Symbolic Interactionism”

Discussion Questions

• How does social process theory explain the influence of family structure and conflict on an individual’s likelihood to engage in criminal behavior, and how does this compare to the impact of peer relationships and socialization outside the family?
• Considering Edwin Sutherland’s theory that criminal behavior is learned through interaction with others holding pro-criminal attitudes, discuss how modern social media and online communities might affect the spread of such attitudes among youths today.
• Reflect on the role of schools and the educational system in potentially contributing to criminal behavior, as suggested by the labeling theory aspect of social process theory. How do labels like “problem youth” affect students’ self-concept and behavior, and what alternatives might schools consider preventing such outcomes?
• Discuss the significance of social control mechanisms, as outlined in social process theory, in preventing criminal behavior. How can communities strengthen these mechanisms to reduce crime rates effectively?
• Analyze the claim that religious participation, rather than mere belief, acts as a more significant inhibitor of crime. What might this suggest about the nature of social influences and the effectiveness of communal activities in deterring delinquent behavior?
• Considering the dynamic nature of criminal behavior as suggested by social process theory, evaluate the potential of intervention programs targeting social learning and the reinforcement of pro-social behaviors. How might these programs be designed to effectively address and mitigate the root social causes of criminal behavior?

Supplemental Resources

1. Cybercrimeology (April 14, 2020). S1:E12 podcast – Social Learning Theory and Cybercrime: The impact of Family, Friends and Bronies (last accessed, March 14, 2024).

2. The Criminology Academy Podcast: “Social Learning and Digital Behavior” (2023) – Discusses modern applications of Akers’s framework to online deviance and digital peer influence.