Social Process and Crime
Module 8 covers social process theory, which is a criminological perspective that focuses on how criminal behavior is learned and shaped through social interactions and processes. Readings and resources provide an opportunity to identify how social process theory is unlike other criminological theories that emphasize individual traits or structural factors, social process theory highlights the significance of socialization, peer influence, and the impact of social interactions in shaping an individual’s propensity for criminal conduct. An examination of social forces throughout the module provides an opportunity to understand in what ways the theory suggests that crime is not solely determined by inherent characteristics or external circumstances, but rather, it is a result of ongoing social processes and interactions.
Learning Objectives
After completing this module, you should be able to:
- examine the nature of process theories of crime, including the important institutions within these theories and the role of socialization.
- explain the history and major concepts within the differential association/social learning perspective.
- identify what makes control theories different from other explanations of crime.
- list the types of informal control and explain how they fit into the various control theories of criminal behavior.
- discuss the social context of labeling theory and the labeling process.
- summarize the policy implications derived from learning, control, and labeling theories of crime.
Summary
Social process theory is a criminological perspective that focuses on how criminal behavior is learned and shaped through social interactions and processes. Unlike other criminological theories that emphasize individual traits or structural factors, social process theory highlights the significance of socialization, peer influence, and the impact of social interactions in shaping an individual’s propensity for criminal conduct. This theory suggests that crime is not solely determined by inherent characteristics or external circumstances, but rather, it is a result of ongoing social processes and interactions with intimate, peer, and social relationships. Furthermore, socialization, not the social structure, determines life chances. The more social problems encountered during the socialization process, the greater the likelihood that youths will encounter difficulties and obstacles.
Social process draws heavily from social learning theory, which posits that individuals learn behaviors, including criminal ones, through observation, imitation, and reinforcement. Criminal behavior may be acquired by associating with delinquent peers, family members, or engaging in criminal subcultures. The collection of theories within the social process perspective argues that socialization, not the social structure, determines life chances. The more social problems encountered during the socialization process, the greater the likelihood that youths will encounter difficulties and obstacles.
In 1939, Edwin Sutherland put forth one of the most notable social process theories. He explained that criminal behavior is learned through interactions with others who hold favorable attitudes toward crime. Individuals exposed to pro-criminal attitudes and values are more likely to adopt those values and engage in criminal activities.
In addition, the social theoretical perspective considers the role of socialization in shaping an individual’s behavior. Early socialization experiences, especially within the family and peer groups, can significantly influence a person’s attitudes towards authority, norms, and the acceptability of deviant behaviors. The relationship between family structure and crime is critical when the high rates of divorce and single parents are considered, but family conflict and discord are more important determinants of behavior than are family structure.
Peer influence may be a universal norm. Peer relations are a vital aspect of maturation and adolescents feel a persistent pressure to conform to group values. Those who regularly attend religious services should also eschew crime and other antisocial behaviors. The association between religious attendance and belief and delinquent behavior patterns is negligible and insignificant; participation seems to be a more significant inhibitor of crime than merely having religious beliefs and values.
The effect of the family on delinquency has also been observed in other cultures. Educational process and adolescent achievement in school have been linked to criminality. Schools contribute to criminality in that when they label problem youths, they set them apart from conventional society. Many school dropouts, especially those who have been expelled, face a significant chance of entering a criminal career. In addition, the perspective connected to labeling theory, which emphasizes how the process of labeling individuals as criminals or deviants can influence their self-concept and behavior. Being labeled as a criminal can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, where individuals internalize the criminal identity and engage in further criminal behavior.
This perspective examines the effectiveness of social control mechanisms in regulating behavior. Weak social bonds, low attachment to conventional institutions, and a lack of social control can lead to an increased likelihood of criminal behavior. In addition, the theory recognizes the role of rational choice and the availability of criminal opportunities. Individuals may weigh the costs and benefits of engaging in criminal behavior based on their social interactions and the perceived likelihood of getting caught.
Finally, social process theory highlights the dynamic nature of criminal behavior and the importance of social influences in shaping individuals’ choices. By focusing on the social context and social interactions, this theory provides insights into how criminal behavior can be prevented or redirected through positive socialization, strong social bonds, and supportive networks. Intervention programs that target social learning and the reinforcement of pro-social behaviors can be instrumental in reducing criminal behavior and promoting prosocial outcomes within communities.
Test Your Knowledge
Print a copy of the following worksheet and bring it to class! As an alternative, complete the worksheet while you read through the following key terms and concepts summary located below: Worksheet
Key Takeaways
Click on the > to expand the related statement.
Key Terms/Concepts
Click on the following key term/concept to view the definition:
Differential Association
Differential Association-Reinforcement Theory
Differential Identification
Containment Theory
Control Balance Theory
Frank Tannenbaum (1938)
General Theory of Crime (GTC)
Labeling Theory
Reintegrative Shaming
Ronald L. Akers (1966)
Social Bond Theory
Social Control Theories
Social Learning Theory
Stanley Cohen (1995)
Symbolic Interaction
Modern Application
Cybersecurity and Differential Association
The relationship between cybersecurity and social norms is both complex and dynamic, reflecting the evolving landscape of digital interactions and the expectations that govern them. Cybersecurity, fundamentally concerned with protecting information and systems from digital threats, intersects with social norms at the juncture where human behavior meets technology. Social norms dictate what is considered acceptable or ethical in online behavior, influencing the development of cybersecurity policies and practices. For instance, the increasing emphasis on privacy and data protection has been shaped significantly by societal values and expectations, leading to more robust cybersecurity measures. Conversely, cybersecurity incidents often prompt a reevaluation of social norms, as seen in the growing public discourse on the responsibility of individuals and organizations to maintain cyber hygiene. This bidirectional relationship highlights the critical role that societal values play in shaping cybersecurity strategies and the importance of cybersecurity awareness in cultivating a safer digital culture.
Social process theories provide a basis from which we can better understand the relationship between cybersecurity and social norms within the digital context. For example, social Interaction and learning emphasizes that criminal behavior is learned through social interactions, highlighting the influence of socialization, peer influence, and intimate relationships on an individual’s propensity for criminal conduct. In addition, social learning Theory suggests that behaviors, including criminal ones, are acquired through observation, imitation, and reinforcement, particularly from delinquent peers and family members. Therefore, there is value un developing information and communication technology policies that are in part informed by these criminological theories.
- Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (Nov. 30, 2017), Cybersecurity and the Concept of Norms (Marth Finnemore, Nov. 30, 2017).)
Read, Review, Watch and Listen
1. Read Chapter 37: Social Learning Theory by Ronald L. Akers, University of Florida and Wesley G. Jennings, University of Louisville
- Print a copy or have access to this reading via a digital device for in class review and discussion.
- To support the student’s reading of the article, they can listen to a recorded version of the same. Note that listening to the article is not a substitute for a careful and directed reading of the document
This chapter:
- provides an overview of Akers’s social learning theory, outlining its foundation in Sutherland’s differential association theory and incorporating principles from behavioral psychology, such as those by Skinner and Bandura.
- explains that Burgess and Akers’s differential association-reinforcement theory aimed to address the limitations of Sutherland’s work by detailing the learning process through operant conditioning, highlighting how reinforcement and punishment shape behavior.
- emphasizes four core components of social learning theory: differential association, definitions, differential reinforcement, and imitation, each contributing uniquely to the learning and continuation of criminal or deviant behavior.
- reviews empirical support for the theory, discussing landmark studies like the Boys Town and Iowa studies, which demonstrated that social learning variables significantly explained substance use and delinquent behavior among adolescents.
- also discusses the expansion of social learning theory into a macro-level framework known as social structure and social learning (SSSL), which posits that social structures indirectly affect behavior through social learning processes.
2. Voluntarily Read Chapter 29: Labeling and Symbolic Interaction Theories by Sean Maddan, University of Tampa and Ineke Haen Marshall
- Print a copy or have access to this reading via a digital device for in class review and discussion.
- To support the student’s reading of the article, they can listen to a recorded version of the same. Note that listening to the article is not a substitute for a careful and directed reading of the document
This chapter:
3. Watch Self control: Dan Ariely at TEDxDuke (April 18, 2011) – also embedded below
a. In 1990, Hirschi and Michael Gottfredson proposed a general theory of crime (GTC) based on control theory concepts.
b. The theory asserts that low self-control accounts for all types of crime, always.
c. Self-control is acquired early in life and low self-control combined with impulsivity is the premier individual-level cause of crime.
d. A well-developed social bond will result in the creation of effective mechanisms of self-control.
4. Watch The Rescue Me Project | The Identity of the JUMP (The Rescue Me Project, December 2, 2021) – also embedded below
a. Social process theories emphasize crime prevention programs that work to enhance self-control and build prosocial bonds.
b. The Juvenile Mentoring Program (JUMP) is run by the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention (OJJDP).
c. JUMP attempts to build strong social bonds while teaching positive values to juveniles.
d. JUMP places at-risk youth in a one-on-one relationship with favorable adult role models
e. Both youth and mentors are very positive when rating the mentoring experience
5. Watch Labeling Theory (desoriente0, September 2013)
a. Society’s response to offenders is important.
b. It determines the individual futures of those labeled as criminals.
c. It may contribute to increased criminality by reducing the behavioral options available to labeled offenders.
d. Frank Tannenbaum’s 1938 research used the term “tagging” to describe what happens to offenders after arrest, conviction, and sentencing.
6. Listen to Episode 84. Self-Control and Crime with Michael Gottfredson (The Criminology Academy, Oct. 2023)
Listen to Caught: Introducing Charged (NPR – WBEZ Chicago, May 8, 2019) [last accessed August 2023]
To access the PPT file, click HERE. Note that files are updated regularly and as such might change in content and appearance.
Read, Review, Watch and Listen to all listed materials by the due date listed within the course LMS (i.e., Blackboard) site.
Contact the professor with any course-related questions
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Activity – Understanding Mechanisms of Social Process/Control Within a Digital Context
STOP!!!
Students should review the course syllabus to determine the assignment of this activity.
This is a copy of the module’s activity that students find within Blackboard. For that reason, refer to the Activities page to submit your work for review.
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is to strengthen the student’s understanding of social process theory, most specifically social control, within the context of a digital environment.
Instructions
- This module’s activity requires that students have completed a cursory review of Chapter 37: Social Learning Theory by Ronald L. Akers, University of Florida and Wesley G. Jennings, University of Louisville
- Read K. Jaishankar’s Abstract and seven (7) postulates for Space Transition© Theory of Cyber Crimes
- Learn about B.F. Skinner. Watch B.F. Skinner in 2 Minutes (May 26, 2016)
- Watch Social Media as Social Control (Luke Smith, Feb. 2021)
Answer the following questions:
- Discuss the significance of social control mechanisms (e.g., family, education, media and technology, self-control, etc.), as outlined in social process theory, in preventing online criminal behavior via social media applications.
- The Space Transition Theory suggests that individuals exhibit different behaviors when they transition from physical spaces to cyberspace. Explain how the ‘transition’ might make it difficult to develop effective measures of social control and prevention strategies in cyberspace?
- Considering the unique aspects of cybercrimes as distinct from traditional crimes in physical spaces, how might existing criminological theories such as Social Learning Theory, Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory, or Gottfredson or Hirschi’s General Theory of Crime be adapted or expanded to better address the phenomena of cybercrimes?
Key Terms/Concepts
General Theory of Crime – Also known as Self-Control Theory, is a prominent criminological theory developed by Michael Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi in 1990. The theory posits that the primary cause of criminal behavior is low self-control, which is formed early in childhood and remains relatively stable throughout an individual’s life.
Social Control Theories – A group of criminological theories that focus on the mechanisms and processes by which societies regulate and control individual behavior to prevent deviance and criminality. These theories suggest that the presence of social bonds, attachments, and conformity to societal norms play a crucial role in deterring individuals from engaging in deviant behavior.
Social Process Theory – Also known as Social Cognitive Theory or Social Learning Socialization Theory, is a psychological and criminological theory developed by Albert Bandura in the 1960s. The theory proposes that individuals learn new behaviors, attitudes, and values by observing and imitating others, particularly those they perceive as role models or authority figures. Social Learning Theory emphasizes the importance of the social environment in shaping human behavior and focuses on how learned behaviors influence future actions.
Space Transition Theory – A theoretical framework proposed by Jaishankar in 2008 to explain the causation of cybercrimes. It argues that people behave differently when they move from one space to another, such as from physical space to cyber space.
Refer to the course learning management system (LMS); that is Blackboard (BB), for the correct due date. In addition, submit your work via BB for grading.
Discussion Questions
- How does social process theory explain the influence of family structure and conflict on an individual’s likelihood to engage in criminal behavior, and how does this compare to the impact of peer relationships and socialization outside the family?
- Considering Edwin Sutherland’s theory that criminal behavior is learned through interaction with others holding pro-criminal attitudes, discuss how modern social media and online communities might affect the spread of such attitudes among youths today.
- Reflect on the role of schools and the educational system in potentially contributing to criminal behavior, as suggested by the labeling theory aspect of social process theory. How do labels like “problem youth” affect students’ self-concept and behavior, and what alternatives might schools consider preventing such outcomes?
- Discuss the significance of social control mechanisms, as outlined in social process theory, in preventing criminal behavior. How can communities strengthen these mechanisms to reduce crime rates effectively?
- Analyze the claim that religious participation, rather than mere belief, acts as a more significant inhibitor of crime. What might this suggest about the nature of social influences and the effectiveness of communal activities in deterring delinquent behavior?
- Considering the dynamic nature of criminal behavior as suggested by social process theory, evaluate the potential of intervention programs targeting social learning and the reinforcement of pro-social behaviors. How might these programs be designed to effectively address and mitigate the root social causes of criminal behavior?
Supplemental Resources
- Cybercrimeology (April 14, 2020). S1:E12 podcast – Social Learning Theory and Cybercrime: The impact of Family, Friends and Bronies (last accessed, March 14, 2024).
References
- Akers, R. L., & Jennings, W. G. (2009). Social Learning Theory. In J. M. Miller (Ed.), 21st Century Reference Series. 21st Century Criminology: A Reference Handbook (Vol. 1, pp. 323-331). SAGE Reference. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3201600048/GVRL?u=cod_lrc&sid=bookmark-GVRL&xid=395956fe
- Maddan, S., & Marshall, I. H. (2009). Labeling and Symbolic Interaction Theories. In J. M. Miller (Ed.), 21st Century Reference Series. 21st Century Criminology: A Reference Handbook (Vol. 1, pp. 253-261). SAGE Reference. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3201600040/GVRL?u=cod_lrc&sid=bookmark-GVRL&xid=4c573192
One of the most influential forms of learning theory, developed in 1939 by Edwin H. Sutherland. It suggests that criminality is learned through a process of differential association with others who communicate criminal values and advocate the commission of crimes. Sutherland suggested that all significant human behavior is learned, and that crime is not substantively different from any other form of behavior.
Combines elements of both Differential Association Theory and Social Learning Theory. This theory, developed by Ronald Akers in the 1970s, seeks to explain how individuals learn criminal behavior through interactions with others and how they are reinforced or punished for their actions.
A concept introduced by sociologists Daniel Glaser and William Glaser in the context of social learning theory. It is an extension of Edwin H. Sutherland's Differential Association Theory and emphasizes the role of identification with significant others in the process of learning deviant or criminal behavior.
Developed by sociologist Walter C. Reckless in the 1960s, is a criminological theory that seeks to explain why some individuals are more resistant to social pressures and less likely to engage in deviant or criminal behavior despite facing external and internal pressures. The theory posits that various factors can act as buffers or containment forces, preventing individuals from succumbing to delinquent temptations.
Developed by Charles R. Tittle in the 1990s. It offers an explanation of deviant and criminal behavior by examining the balance of control that individuals have over their own lives and the control they exert over others.
Was a prominent sociologist and criminologist known for his work in the early 20th century. While he is not particularly known for a publication in 1938, one of his significant works is "Crime and the Community" (1938). In "Crime and the Community," Tannenbaum explored the social and cultural aspects of crime and delinquency. He argued that society's reaction to criminal behavior often played a crucial role in shaping the behavior of individuals labeled as criminals.
Also known as Self-Control Theory, is a prominent criminological theory developed by Michael Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi in 1990. The theory posits that the primary cause of criminal behavior is low self-control, which is formed early in childhood and remains relatively stable throughout an individual's life.
Also known as Social Reaction Theory or Interactionist Perspective, is a criminological and sociological theory that focuses on how social labels and societal reactions can influence an individual's self-identity and behavior. The theory suggests that when individuals are labeled as deviant or criminal by society, it can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, where they internalize and embrace the label, resulting in increased deviant or criminal behavior.
A concept developed by Australian criminologists John Braithwaite as part of their theory of restorative justice. Reintegrative shaming is a form of social control that aims to address and reduce criminal behavior by using shame in a way that promotes the reintegration of offenders back into society.
A criminologist who is known for his work in the area of social learning theory. He developed and expanded upon Edwin Sutherland's differential association theory. Akers argued that criminal behavior is learned through social interactions and that individuals are more likely to engage in criminal activities if they associate with others who have pro-criminal attitudes and behaviors. His work emphasizes the role of reinforcement and punishment in shaping criminal behavior and has had a lasting influence on the understanding of how individuals acquire criminal values and engage in criminal acts.
Also known as Social Control Theory, is a criminological theory developed by Travis Hirschi in 1969. The theory proposes that the strength of an individual's social bonds to society plays a crucial role in determining their propensity to engage in deviant or criminal behavior. It suggests that individuals with strong social bonds are less likely to commit crimes because they have more to lose by engaging in such behavior.
A group of criminological theories that focus on the mechanisms and processes by which societies regulate and control individual behavior to prevent deviance and criminality. These theories suggest that the presence of social bonds, attachments, and conformity to societal norms play a crucial role in deterring individuals from engaging in deviant behavior.
Also known as Social Cognitive Theory or Social Learning Socialization Theory, is a psychological and criminological theory developed by Albert Bandura in the 1960s. The theory proposes that individuals learn new behaviors, attitudes, and values by observing and imitating others, particularly those they perceive as role models or authority figures. Social Learning Theory emphasizes the importance of the social environment in shaping human behavior and focuses on how learned behaviors influence future actions.
Was a renowned sociologist and criminologist known for his work on social reactions to deviant behavior and moral panics. In 1995, he published a book titled "Visions of Social Control: Crime, Punishment, and Classification." In this book, Cohen explored various aspects of social control, including how societies define, classify, and respond to deviance and criminal behavior.
A sociological perspective that focuses on the study of how individuals create and interpret symbols to develop shared meanings and construct their social reality. It is a micro-level theory that examines the everyday interactions between people and how these interactions shape their perceptions, identities, and social behavior.
