Social Structure and Crime
Module 7 introduces various general assumptions and types of sociological theories before focusing specifically on social structure theories. Social structure theories are a group of sociologically based theories that consider formal and informal economic and social arrangements of society as root causes of crime and deviance. Structure based theories highlight arrangements within society that contribute to the low socioeconomic status of identifiable groups as significant causes of crime. The three main types of social structure theories are: (1) social disorganization theories, (2) general strain theories [GST], and (3) the culture conflict perspectives. Particular attention is given to exploring how social structure theories have influenced social policy, through programs such as the Chicago Area Project (CAP), Mobilization for Youth, and the War on Poverty.
Learning Objectives
After completing this module, you should be able to:
- explain the meaning of a “structural” explanation of crime.
- recognize the contributions of Emile Durkheim and how his work connects to modern criminological theory.
- identify the central themes captured by the Chicago School and social disorganization theory.
- describe the anomie/strain tradition, including the work of Robert K. Merton and subsequent revisions of his theory.
- identify the different subcultural explanations of delinquency and connect them to broader theoretical traditions.
- explain how culture conflict connect the theories within this chapter to their respective policy implications.
Summary
Social structure theory, also known as social disorganization theory, is a criminological perspective that links crime rates to the characteristics of a community or neighborhood. The theory posits that the structural and social features of a community can influence the prevalence of criminal behavior and deviance within that community. It emphasizes the importance of understanding the social context and environment in which individuals live to comprehend the factors contributing to crime.
Key elements of social structure theory and crime include social disorganization, the ecological perspective, strain and anomie, informal social control, poverty and inequality, neighborhood effects, and collective efficacy.
Social disorganization refers to a breakdown in the social fabric of a community, which can result from factors such as poverty, residential mobility, ethnic heterogeneity, and weak community ties. When a community lacks social cohesion and collective efficacy, it becomes more susceptible to crime and delinquency.
Social structure theory adopts an ecological perspective by viewing communities as ecosystems. It focuses on the spatial distribution of crime and delinquency, examining how crime rates vary across different neighborhoods with distinct social characteristics.
Social structure theory is influenced by strain theory and anomie theory, which suggest that individuals may turn to crime when they experience a disconnection between socially approved goals and the means to achieve those goals. In socially disorganized communities with limited opportunities and resources, the likelihood of criminal coping mechanisms increases.
The theory highlights the importance of informal social control mechanisms in preventing crime. When communities lack strong bonds, mutual trust, and shared norms, informal social control mechanisms that discourage criminal behavior weaken, allowing deviant acts to proliferate.
Social structure theory recognizes the impact of poverty and social inequality on crime rates. Communities with higher levels of poverty and economic disadvantage often experience higher crime rates due to limited access to resources and opportunities for social and economic advancement.
The theory emphasizes the impact of the neighborhood environment on an individual’s behavior. Individuals living in socially disorganized areas may adopt the norms and values prevalent in their immediate surroundings, which can influence their involvement in criminal activities.
Collective efficacy refers to a community’s ability to work together to address common problems and maintain social order. Strong collective efficacy can serve as a protective factor against crime, as communities with high levels of cooperation and social integration are better equipped to prevent criminal behavior.
Social structure theory highlights the significance of the broader social context in shaping crime rates and patterns. By understanding the dynamics of communities and neighborhoods, policymakers and practitioners can develop targeted interventions to address the root causes of crime, such as poverty, lack of opportunities, and weak social ties. Strengthening community bonds, promoting economic development, and implementing community-based crime prevention programs are some of the strategies that can be employed to reduce crime in socially disorganized areas and foster safer and more resilient communities.
Test Your Knowledge
Print a copy of the following worksheet and bring it to class! As an alternative, complete the worksheet while you read through the summary located above: Worksheet
Key Takeaways
Click on the > to expand the related statement.
Key Terms/Concepts
Click on the following key term/concept to view the definition:
Anomie
Chicago School
Clifford R. Shaw and Henry D. McKay (1942)
Collective Efficacy
Culture Conflict Theory
Differential Opportunity
Émile Durkheim (1858-1917)
Focal Concerns
General Strain Theory (GST)
Mechanical Solidarity
Middle-Class Measuring Rod
Neutralization Theory
Organic Solidarity
Reaction Formation
Relative Deprivation
Robert E. Park and Ernest W. Burgess (1928)
Robert K. Merton (1910-2003)
Social Disorganization
Social Ecology
Strain Theory
Subculture Theory
Zone in Transition
Modern Application
Can Cybercrime be Explained with Strain Theory?
According to strain theory, individuals engage in computer crime when they experience strain or pressure in their lives, such as economic hardship or social exclusion. Computer crime may provide a way for them to alleviate their stress or gain a sense of power and control.
Computer crime, encompassing a range of illegal activities conducted through digital means, offers individuals a unique pathway to exert power and control, as well as a method to alleviate stress.
The digital realm provides a veil of anonymity and a physical distance from victims, enabling individuals to commit crimes without the immediate risk of identification or confrontation. This detachment not only emboldens them but also creates a perceived environment of control and power over their targets.
Engaging in computer crime often requires a certain level of technical skill and knowledge, which can contribute to a sense of superiority and mastery. For some, the challenge of bypassing security measures and exploiting vulnerabilities is intellectually stimulating and gratifying, reinforcing their sense of control and capability.
The immersive nature of the digital world offers a form of escapism from real-world problems and stressors. Engaging in computer crime can be a way for individuals to divert their attention from personal issues, using the thrill and focus required for such activities as a form of stress relief.
Computer crime can invert traditional power dynamics, allowing individuals who may feel powerless or marginalized in their physical lives to exert influence and command over others online. This shift can provide a psychological boost, empowering them in ways they do not experience offline.
Some people engage in computer crime as part of online communities or groups. The sense of belonging to a community that shares skills, knowledge, and goals can further enhance feelings of power and control, alongside providing social support mechanisms that alleviate stress.
Computer crime offers individuals a complex interplay of power, control, and stress relief, facilitated by the anonymity, technical challenge, escapism, altered power dynamics, and community belonging inherent in the digital world.
- Institutional Anomie Theory and Cybercrime—Cybercrime and the American Dream, Now Available Online (Dearden, Thomas & Parti, Katalin & Hawdon, James. (2021). Institutional Anomie Theory and Cybercrime—Cybercrime and the American Dream, Now Available Online. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice.) [last accessed, March 3, 2024].
This article published in the Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, explores the relationship between institutional anomie theory (IAT) and cybercrime. The authors use a national sample of 215 self-admitted cybercriminals to examine how levels of institutional anomie correlate with cybercrime activity. Their research finds a relationship between two variables where the change in one variable does not correspond to a constant change in the other variable (i.e., curvilinear) indicating that both low and high levels of institutional anomie are associated with increased cybercrime. The study reveals that the pursuit of economic success, as dictated by American capitalism and the values of the American Dream, influences online criminal behavior.
In addition, the authors provide a succinct presentation of the theoretical background of strain and anomie theories, their application to cybercrime, and presents empirical findings supporting the relevance of IAT in understanding cybercriminal activities. The study underscores the complex interaction between economic pressures, individual values, and online deviance, suggesting that both extreme adherence to and rejection of the American Dream can produce conditions favorable for cybercriminal behavior.
An examination of cyberbullying might prove instructive as it provides an opportunity to consider internal (e.g., psychological) and external (e.g., social) factors with the potential to intensify one’s willingness and eventual involvement in digitally supported behavior.
-
Verywell Minda. The Psychology of Cyberbullying (Arlin Cuncic, MA, Dec. 31, 2023) [last accessed, March 3, 2024].
Read, Review, Watch and Listen
1. Read Chapter 36: Social Disorganization Theory by Jeffrey T. Walker, University of Arkansas, Little Rock
- Print a copy or have access to this reading via a digital device for in class review and discussion.
- To support the student’s reading of the article, they can listen to a recorded version of the same. Note that listening to the article is not a substitute for a careful and directed reading of the document
Part 1:
Part 2:
This chapter:
- outlines the origins and evolution of Social Disorganization Theory, tracing its roots from plant biology and human ecology to its formalization by Shaw and McKay, who linked urban characteristics to delinquency.
- describes how Shaw and McKay used ecological factors such as physical status, economic status, and population status to explain patterns of delinquency in urban settings, particularly highlighting the impacts of community stability and social norms.
- examines the decline of Social Disorganization Theory in the 1970s, noting criticism of its reliance on official data and the theory’s reduced focus in criminological studies until its partial resurgence in the 1990s.
- introduces the concept of “collective efficacy,” a modern extension of Social Disorganization Theory, emphasizing how neighborhood cohesion and informal social control can mitigate crime.
- suggests the future of Social Disorganization Theory may rely on studies incorporating collective efficacy and environmental criminology, as the classic form of the theory continues to be refined or integrated with newer frameworks.
2. Voluntarily read Chapter 38: Strain Theories by Robert Agnew, Emory University
- Print a copy or have access to this reading via a digital device for in class review and discussion.
- To support the student’s reading of the article, they can listen to a recorded version of the same. Note that listening to the article is not a substitute for a careful and directed reading of the document
This chapter:
- explains strain theories as frameworks for understanding crime, positing that certain stressors, like the inability to achieve goals or exposure to negative stimuli, increase the likelihood of criminal behavior as a coping mechanism.
- explores Robert Agnew’s General Strain Theory (GST), emphasizing how high-magnitude, unjust, and low-social-control strains—such as discrimination, homelessness, and abuse—are particularly conducive to crime.
- describes how strains contribute to crime by fostering negative emotions, particularly anger, frustration, and depression, which may push individuals toward crime as a form of relief or retaliation.
- highlights factors influencing criminal coping, including poor coping skills, low social support, association with criminal peers, and beliefs that justify crime as a valid response to strain.
- discusses the policy implications of strain theories, advocating for social programs like parental support, anti-bullying initiatives, and job training to reduce strains and promote healthier coping strategies.
3. Review the Chicago Area Project (CAP) website. Identify various initiatives that CAP supports, e.g., community and youth services, prevention and wellness, and workforce development.
a. Environmental criminology is an emerging perspective building on routine activities theory, situational crime prevention, and ecological approaches and emphasizing the importance of location and architectural features in the prevalence of victimization.
b. Lawrence Sherman’s “hot spots” of crime research found that a small percentage of places in Minneapolis produced half of all calls to the police.
4. Review a category of your choice from The Power of Place The indelible mark of neighborhoods (Vital City Journal, Issue 3). Issue 3 contains several categories from which you will find compelling articles; that is, Setting the Stage, Looking Back, Conversations, etc.
5. Watch How does Merton’s Strain Theory work? Sociology of Crime and Deviance (Precooked Sociology, August 15, 2022) – also embedded below.
a. Strain theory is a sociological concept that was developed by Robert K. Merton in the mid-20th century. It seeks to explain deviant behavior by examining the tension or “strain” individuals experience when they are unable to achieve socially accepted goals through legitimate means. Here’s a summarized explanation of strain theory:
b. Strain theory states that society sets culturally approved goals, such as success, wealth, and status, which are desirable to all members. Society also prescribes legitimate means to achieve these goals, like education and hard work.
c. When individuals are unable to attain these goals through conventional means or feel that the means are blocked for them, they experience a state of “anomie,” or normlessness. This leads to feelings of strain and frustration.
d. In response to strain, individuals may adopt different modes of adaptation, which can be categorized into five types:
-
-
- Conformity: Individuals continue to pursue societal goals through accepted means.
- Innovation: People create new, often unconventional methods to achieve societal goals.
- Ritualism: Individuals abandon the pursuit of societal goals but continue to adhere rigidly to the means.
- Retreatism: People withdraw from both societal goals and conventional means, often turning to substance abuse or deviant lifestyles.
- Rebellion: Individuals reject both the established goals and means, striving to replace them with alternative values and goals.
-
e. Strain theory suggests that deviant behavior can result from the inability to resolve the tension caused by the gap between societal goals and the means available for achieving them. The specific form of deviance depends on the individual’s mode of adaptation.
f. In essence, strain theory helps us understand how social structures and opportunities influence individuals’ choices and the potential for deviant behavior when these structures create a sense of frustration and blocked opportunities for success. It remains a valuable perspective in the field of criminology and sociology for examining the root causes of deviance and crime.
6. Watch Breaking Down How the Broken Windows Theory Promotes Racial Bias (theGrio Politics, January 29, 2022). Consider the unintended consequences of polices that are rooted deeply in criminological teachings (also embedded below).
7. Listen to Gun violence in our region, and who’s working to curb it (WMRA | Randi B. Hagi, November 21, 2022).
a. Thorsten Sellin suggests that the root causes of crime are found in different values about what is acceptable or proper behavior. Consider which norms are in at odds and how differently socialized groups solve problems.
b. Franco Ferracuti and Marvin Wolfgang have proposed the existence of a subculture emphasizing values that support violence and violent behavior.
c. They suggest that for members of these violent subcultures, violence can be a way of life and thus the users do not feel guilty about their aggressive behavior.
8. Listen to Incarcerated teens find escape in music and poems composed with artists (NPR-WEBZ Chicago, Olivia Hampton June 2, 2023)
a. Consider that the likelihood that a juvenile will react to strains with criminal behavior depends on a range of factors influencing the individual’s (1) ability to engage in legal coping, (2) costs of crime, and (3) disposition of crime. As you listen, isolate which aspects of music and the related experience are positive reinforcements that strengthen the ability of the youth to resist engaging in antisocial behavior.
To access the PPT file, click HERE. Note that files are updated regularly and as such might change in content and appearance.
Read, Review, Watch and Listen to all listed materials by the due date listed within the course LMS (i.e., Blackboard) site.
Contact the professor with any course-related questions
Click HERE to report any needed updates, e.g., broken links.
Activity – Strain and Cyber Espionage Within the Twenty-First Century
STOP!!!
Students should review the course syllabus to determine the assignment of this activity.
This is a copy of the module’s activity that students find within Blackboard. For that reason, refer to the Activities page to submit your work for review.
Purpose
The purpose of this activity is apply aspects of social structure theory within the context of digital structures through the examination of modern espionage and the theft of intellectual property cases. In addition, students will explore how the evolution of technology has contribute to the growth of large-scale, sophisticated criminal enterprise and consider how innovation produces the need for a modern criminology.
Instructions
- Read Cyber Risk GmbH’s From Espionage to Cyber Espionage (June 2024)
- Review CROWDSTRIKE’s What is Cyber Espionage?(Feb. 2023) [last accessed, June 204]
- Watch Cyber Espionage: National Security in the Digital Age (WoodrowWilsonCenter, June 2021) [last accessed, June 2024] {also located below}
- Listen to the FBI’s Economic espionage—the stealing of trade secrets for the benefit of a foreign government—is on the rise audio file (DOJ, July 2015) [last accessed, June 2024]
- Using a search engine of your choice, find a recent article that describes an espionage case that occurred within the past 12 months and include the respective link within your response.
Answer the following questions:
- Was the selected espionage case industrial or economic? Cite specifics from the case to describe what and/or how much was lost.
- Thinking about your selected article, describe the type of espionage is involved and explain how that might related to organized crime.
- From the social structural perspective, explain how technology has expanded the capabilities of criminals and organized groups to perpetrate different forms of espionage.
- Consider the motives for those who commit cyber espionage and explain why are criminals increasingly willing to work together, partner, subcontract, and communicate anonymously through underground channels, to plan and perpetrate new criminal enterprise? Explain and be specific.
Key Terms/Concepts
How does Merton’s Strain Theory work? Sociology of Crime and Deviance
Breaking Down How the Broken Windows Theory Promotes Racial Bias
Collective Efficacy
Discussion Questions
- How did the early studies of urban ecology, plant biology, and crime patterns in Chicago influence the development of social disorganization theory?
- What were the main findings and limitations of the studies that replicated Shaw and McKay’s analysis of ecological characteristics and juvenile delinquency in different cities?
- How did the concepts of collective efficacy, social capital, and environmental criminology advance the understanding of the relationship between neighborhoods and crime?
- What are some of the methodological innovations and substantive issues that need to be addressed to test and improve social disorganization theory in the 21st century?
- How do strain theories suggest that crime can be prevented or reduced? What are some examples of programs or policies that are based on strain theories?
- What are the types of strain that are most conducive to crime, according to general strain theory? How do these strains differ from other types of strain that are less likely to result in crime?
- How do emotions mediate the relationship between strain and crime? What are some emotions that are more likely to lead to crime than others? How do gender differences in emotional reactions to strain affect crime rates?
- How do strain theories explain group differences in crime, such as gender, age, class, and ethnic–racial differences?
Supplemental Resources
- Say NOPE to social disorganization criminology: the importance of creators in neighborhood social control (Linning, S.J., Olaghere, A. & Eck, J.E. Say NOPE to social disorganization criminology: the importance of creators in neighborhood social control. Crime Sci 11, 5 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40163-022-00167-y) [last accessed, March. 2024].
References
- Walker, J. T. (2009). Social Disorganization Theory. In J. M. Miller (Ed.), 21st Century Reference Series. 21st Century Criminology: A Reference Handbook (Vol. 1, pp. 312-322). SAGE Reference. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3201600047/GVRL?u=cod_lrc&sid=bookmark-GVRL&xid=2af7a806
- Agnew, R. S. (2009). Strain Theories. In J. M. Miller (Ed.), 21st Century Reference Series. 21st Century Criminology: A Reference Handbook (Vol. 1, pp. 332-339). SAGE Reference. https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3201600049/GVRL?u=cod_lrc&sid=bookmark-GVRL&xid=7f2d384c
- Chicago Area Project. https://www.chicagoareaproject.org/. Accessed 23 March, 2024.
- Vital City – The Power of Place The indelible mark of neighborhoods. https://www.vitalcitynyc.org/issues/issue-3. Accessed 23 March, 2024.
- Precooked Sociology (Aug. 15, 2022), How does Merton’s Strain Theory work? Sociology of Crime and Deviance – A Level and GCSE. https://youtu.be/NU9I3nNEtiA?si=_F_4VElqmoO4zsz2. Accessed 23 March, 2024.
- theGrio Politics (January 29, 2022), Breaking Down How the Broken Windows Theory Promotes Racial Bias. https://youtu.be/y44Dui0w8Kk?si=JgnmKCRcn2UXh3ye. Accessed 23 March, 2024.
- WMRA (Nov. 21, 2022), Gun violence in our region, and who’s working to curb it (Randi B. Hagi). https://www.wmra.org/2022-11-21/gun-violence-in-our-region-and-whos-working-to-curb-it. Accessed 23 March, 2024.
- NPR-Morning Edition (June 2, 2023), Incarcerated teens find escape in music and poems composed with artists (Olivia Hampton). https://www.npr.org/2023/06/02/1178762181/incarcerated-teens-find-escape-in-music-and-poems-composed-with-artists. Accessed 23 March, 2024.
A concept originally introduced by French sociologist Émile Durkheim, refers to a state of normlessness or a breakdown in the norms and values that guide individuals' behavior in society. In a state of anomie, there is a lack of social cohesion and regulation, leading to a sense of disconnection, confusion, and uncertainty among individuals about what is expected of them.
Was a major sociological movement that emerged in the early 20th century at the University of Chicago. It is recognized for its pioneering contributions to the field of sociology and its innovative research on urban social issues. Led by prominent sociologists such as Robert Park, Ernest Burgess, and Louis Wirth, the Chicago School focused on the study of urban life and social dynamics in rapidly growing cities.
Published a groundbreaking research paper titled "Juvenile Delinquency and Urban Areas: A Study of Rates of Delinquents in Relation to Differential Characteristics of Local Communities in American Cities." This study laid the foundation for the social disorganization theory, which sought to explain the relationship between neighborhood characteristics and crime rates.
In the context of sociology and criminology, refers to the shared belief and social cohesion within a community that enables its members to work together to achieve common goals and effectively address social problems, including crime and disorder. It is a concept developed by sociologists Albert Bandura and Francesca S. Yang.
Also known as Cultural Deviance Theory, is a criminological perspective that focuses on the clash between the cultural values and norms of different groups within a society. This theory posits that criminal behavior can arise when individuals from subcultures or marginalized groups adopt norms and values that deviate from the dominant culture.
A criminological perspective that builds upon the concept of strain theory and expands it to explain how individuals may turn to criminal behavior because of limited legitimate opportunities. This theory, developed by Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin in the 1960s, suggests that access to illegitimate opportunities can influence whether individuals choose conventional or deviant paths to achieve their goals.
Was a prominent French sociologist who is often regarded as one of the founding figures of modern sociology. His work laid the foundation for the systematic study of society and social phenomena as distinct fields of academic inquiry. Here are some key aspects of Émile Durkheim's life and contributions:
Sets of values, beliefs, and attitudes that were introduced by Walter B. Miller, an American sociologist, in his influential work "Lower-Class Culture as a Generating Milieu of Gang Delinquency" (1958). Focal concerns refer to a set of values, beliefs, and attitudes that are prevalent among lower-class individuals, particularly those in urban settings. Miller argued that these focal concerns play a significant role in shaping the behavior and social interactions of individuals in lower-class communities.
A criminological theory developed by sociologist Robert Agnew in the early 1990s. GST builds upon earlier strain theories, such as the work of Robert Merton, and offers a comprehensive framework for understanding the link between strain, negative emotions, and criminal behavior.
A concept introduced by French sociologist Émile Durkheim in his seminal work, "The Division of Labor in Society" (1893). It refers to a form of social cohesion and solidarity that is characteristic of traditional, preindustrial societies, where individuals are bound together by a shared collective conscience and a strong sense of shared values, norms, and beliefs.
A concept that was introduced by sociologist Paul L. Wirth in his article "The Measurement of Social Status in the United States" published in 1938. The Middle-Class Measuring Rod refers to the tendency of people to evaluate social status, success, and well-being based on middle-class norms and values.
Also known as Techniques of Neutralization, is a criminological theory developed by David Matza and Gresham Sykes in the 1950s. The theory explores how individuals rationalize and justify their deviant or criminal behavior while still adhering to societal norms and values. It suggests that people use various psychological and cognitive techniques to neutralize the guilt or shame associated with their actions.
A sociological concept introduced by French sociologist Émile Durkheim in his seminal work, "The Division of Labor in Society" (1893). It refers to a form of social cohesion and solidarity that is characteristic of modern, industrial societies, where individuals are bound together by their interdependence and specialization in different roles and functions.
A psychological defense mechanism identified by Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalysis. It refers to a process in which an individual unconsciously adopts beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors that are the opposite of their true feelings or desires. This defense mechanism operates to manage anxiety or internal conflicts by presenting an outward expression that is socially acceptable or morally aligned, despite conflicting thoughts or emotions within the individual.
In the context of sociology and social psychology, refers to the perception or feeling of being disadvantaged or deprived in comparison to others. It occurs when individuals or groups believe that they are not receiving their fair share of resources, opportunities, or rewards, which can lead to feelings of frustration, resentment, and discontent.
Prominent sociologists associated with the Chicago School of Sociology, a major sociological tradition that emerged in the early 20th century, primarily at the University of Chicago. Their collaboration and research made significant contributions to the fields of urban sociology, social ecology, and human ecology.
Was an influential American sociologist renowned for his contributions to the field of sociology and the development of various sociological theories. He made significant contributions in the areas of social theory, the sociology of science, and the sociology of deviance.
A criminological theory that focuses on the influence of neighborhood characteristics and social factors on crime and deviance. Developed by sociologists at the University of Chicago, particularly Clifford Shaw and Henry McKay, in the early 20th century, this theory examines how certain neighborhood attributes can contribute to higher rates of crime and a breakdown in social control.
An interdisciplinary field that studies the complex interactions between human societies and their environment. It draws from sociology, anthropology, geography, urban planning, and other disciplines to understand how social and environmental factors influence each other and shape human behavior and social organization.
A criminological and sociological perspective that seeks to explain the relationship between social structure, cultural goals, and the occurrence of deviant behavior. The theory, first proposed by sociologist Robert K. Merton in the 1930s, suggests that individuals may turn to deviance and criminal behavior when they experience strain or stress resulting from the discrepancy between culturally prescribed goals and the means available to achieve those goals.
A sociological and criminological perspective that explores how certain social groups develop distinct norms, values, beliefs, and practices that differ from those of the dominant culture. These subcultures can emerge as a response to social and economic conditions, creating unique ways of life and patterns of behavior that may sometimes lead to deviance or criminal activities.
Also known as the "Zone of Transition" or the "Transitional Zone," is a term used in urban sociology and criminology. It refers to a specific area within a city that experiences rapid demographic and social changes, often associated with high levels of crime, poverty, and urban decay.
